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No Slam Dunk: Gender, Sport and the Unevenness of Social Change
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The IOC disqualified Martínez-Patiño in the mid-1980s because she had XY chromosomes.
“The IOC disqualified Mart í nez-Patiño in the mid-1980s because she had XY chromosomes.”
From Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
The case of Spanish Olympic hurdler Maria José Martínez-Patiño was instrumental in shifting the focus to testosterone as the determining factor in sex designation for international sports.
“The case of Spanish Olympic hurdler Maria Jos é Mart í nez-Patiño was instrumental in shifting the focus to testosterone as the determining factor in sex designation for international sports.”
From Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
Martínez-Patiño argued that her insensitivity to testosterone should be the deciding factor in allowing her competition.
“She was able to argue that her insensitivity to testosterone should be the deciding factor in allowing her competition”
From Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
Martínez-Patiño was able to overturn this disqualification by showing that she had complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, characterized by a 46, XY karyotype and high levels of circulating testosterone, but her tissues were unable to respond to testosterone or other androgens.
“Mart í nez-Patiño was able to overturn this disqualification by showing that she had complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, characterized by a 46, XY karyotype and high levels of circulating testosterone, but her tissues were unable to respond to testosterone or other androgens.”
From Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
Both the IAAF (in 1992) and the IOC (in 2000) cited Martínez-Patiño's case as a key determinant in their decisions to discontinue sex testing.
“both the IAAF (in 1992) and the IOC (in 2000) cited her case as a key determinant in their decisions to discontinue sex testing.”
From Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
Citations
Cited by
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One and Done: The Long Eclipse of Women’s Televised Sports, 1989–2019
Cooky, C., Mears, M. A., & Messner, M. A. (2021) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/21674795211003524 · Cited by 232
“We have analyzed this contradictory moment in history, characterized by improving coverage of women’s sports in some media platforms, and continuing stagnation in others as an example of the “unevenness of social change” (Cooky & Messner, 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA losing battle? Women’s sport pre- and post-COVID-19
Bowes, A., Lomax, L., & Piasecki, J. (2021) · European Sport Management Quarterly · doi:10.1080/16184742.2021.1904267 · Cited by 63
“In the twenty-first century, we have witnessed a gender transformation in sports, with millions of girls moving into previously male-dominated sports (Cooky & Messner, 2018).”
Background‘Equal play, equal pay’: moral grounds for equal pay in football
Archer, A., & Prange, M. (2019) · Journal of the Philosophy of Sport · doi:10.1080/00948705.2019.1622125 · Cited by 65
The Psychological Meaning of Team Among Fans of Women’s Sport
Delia, E. B. (2020) · Journal of Sport Management · doi:10.1123/jsm.2019-0404 · Cited by 53
Cleland, J. A., Pope, S., & Williams, J. M. (2020) · Sociology of Sport Journal · doi:10.1123/ssj.2019-0060 · Cited by 32
“As noted by Cooky and Messner (2018), some men in sports settings are now showing resistance to expressions of traditional hegemonic forms of masculinity, with some scholars also claiming that football and other sports are not the broadly homogenous experiences for boys and men they were once…”
BackgroundParticipation of girls and women in community sport in Ghana: Cultural and structural barriers
Charway, D., & Strandbu, Å. (2023) · International Review for the Sociology of Sport · doi:10.1177/10126902231214955 · Cited by 29
“Through the use of the theoretical lens for this study (Cooky and Messner, 2018), common themes that in fl uence the low participation of girls and women were extracted (from the categories) under cultural and structural constraints.”
Method“If you let me play”: girls’ empowerment and transgender exclusion in sports
McClearen, J. (2023) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2022.2041697 · Cited by 26
Rahikainen, K., & Toffoletti, K. (2021) · Sociology of Sport Journal · doi:10.1123/ssj.2020-0177 · Cited by 25
Does Being a Sport Fan Provide Meaning in Life?
Delia, E. B., James, J. D., & Wann, D. L. L. (2021) · Journal of Sport Management · doi:10.1123/jsm.2020-0267 · Cited by 31
Bowes, A., & Kitching, N. (2019) · International Review for the Sociology of Sport · doi:10.1177/1012690219842544 · Cited by 23
“Although there are examples of resistance and progressive change for women in sport (e.g. Cooky and Messner, 2018), Scraton and Flintoff (2013: 106) comment that ‘questions of inequality remain on the agenda for gender and sport’.”
BackgroundQian, T. Y., Matz, R., Luo, L., & Zvosec, C. C. (2022) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1080/14413523.2022.2038922 · Cited by 25
“…soccer at the international stage, the majority of women’s spectator sports still suffer from limited resources, media coverage, and sponsorships; regardless of sport, women’s teams and athletes commonly receive less pay compared to their male counterparts (Cooky & Messner, 2018; Fink, 2015).”
BackgroundPlaying without goals: gendered practices in recreational youth football
Persson, M. F. (2022) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2021.2022641 · Cited by 21
“The intertwining between the different levels is essential to understanding how gender essentialism is reproduced within sport (Cooky and Messner 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialKempe-Bergman, M., Larsson, H., & Redelius, K. (2020) · International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics · doi:10.1080/19406940.2020.1767678 · Cited by 18
Challenging Gender and Disability Stereotypes: Narrative Identities of Brazilian Female Paralympians
Kirakosyan, L. (2021) · Disabilities · doi:10.3390/disabilities1040029 · Cited by 21
Climbing as a lifestyle sport and serious leisure in China
Rahikainen, K. (2020) · Leisure/Loisir · doi:10.1080/14927713.2020.1760123 · Cited by 17
“Sports culture has a long history of well-rooted ideas of traditional masculine values (see e.g., Cooky & Messner, 2018; Wellard, 2015).”
BackgroundWomen’s sport and media: a call to critical arms
Rowe, D., & Silva, K. K. P. (2023) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2023.2201663 · Cited by 16
Pankowiak, A., Casey, M. M., Eime, R., et al. (2024) · Sport in Society · doi:10.1080/17430437.2024.2390989 · Cited by 13
“This finding is important because it shows that unlike stereotypical ideals of femininity, girls and women do find ongoing joy in being physically active through expressing stereotypically masculine traits (Connell and Messerschmidt 2016; Cooky and Messner 2018).”
Wear, H. T., Naraine, M. L., & Bakhsh, J. T. (2022) · Sport Marketing Quarterly · doi:10.32731/smq.312.0622.04 · Cited by 12
Zanin, A. C., LeMaster, L. T., Niess, L. C., et al. (2023) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/21674795221148159 · Cited by 12
Cooky, C. (2018) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_33 · Cited by 12
Self-citationPersson, M. F., & Eriksen, I. M. (2025) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2025.2451354 · Cited by 11
“Across most of the Western world, there are differences in participation according to socioeconomic background (van Tuyckom, 2016), gender (Cooky & Messner, 2018) and ethnicity (Dowling, 2024).”
Women’s football: don’t judge me, support me! evidence from young generations
Giachino, C., Valenti, M., Bonadonna, A., et al. (2023) · Soccer and Society · doi:10.1080/14660970.2023.2219612 · Cited by 10
“‘No Tough Guys Here?’: Hybrid Masculinity in a Boxing Gym”
Rabii, W. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Ethnography · doi:10.1177/0891241620985585 · Cited by 10
McGovern, J. (2021) · Latino Studies · doi:10.1057/s41276-021-00307-6 · Cited by 9
Abouna, M.-S., & Bourgeois, P. (2021) · Staps · doi:10.3917/sta.131.0103 · Cited by 8
Nichols, K. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19799-5_9 · Cited by 8
Gender Policing in Girls’ and Women’s Sports
Blazer, A. (2023) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel14081054 · Cited by 7
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The Dice Are Loaded: Schools’ Social Class Composition and Athletic Contests
Goldsmith, P. R., & Abel, R. D. (2022) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231211069423 · Cited by 9
“The few sociologists who have studied sports performance pit themselves against biological or genetic explanations in favor of sociological ones, especially in studies about gender and race (Chambliss 1989; Cooky and Messner 2018; Harrison, Lawrence, and Bukstein 2011).”
BackgroundJensen, M., Schorer, J., & Faber, I. R. (2022) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-022-00520-0 · Cited by 8
Spaaij, R., McLachlan, F., Luguetti, C., & McDonald, B. (2025) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2025.2522874 · Cited by 6
“However, it should be remembered that social change is a complex, uneven process that operates across different levels of analysis (Cooky and Messner 2018; Strasser and Randall 1981).”
Park, D. J., & Shin, N. (2022) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/01937235221134606 · Cited by 8
“Cheryl Cooky and Messner (2018) note that sport has long been an ideological apparatus that symbolizes gender inequality by emphasizing physical differences.”
BackgroundExploring Race Consciousness among South Korean College Students through Sport
Lee, Y., & Yoon, I. (2020) · Quest · doi:10.1080/00336297.2020.1749860 · Cited by 6
“Sport studies scholars have been arguing for the notion of sport as an important cultural site wherein various strands of social relations intersect, producing and reproducing ideologies (Adelman, 1986; Birrell, 1989; Coakley, 2017; Cooky & Messner, 2018).”
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Malcom, N. L., Edmonds, S. E., Gipson, C. M., et al. (2021) · Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal · doi:10.1123/wspaj.2020-0052 · Cited by 5
Wu, X., Schuetz, L., Lee, M., Payne, L. L., & Shinew, K. J. (2023) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2023.2183368 · Cited by 5
“Men’s sports generally attract larger audiences, which could be due to women’s sport teams having less media coverage, sponsorships, and lucrative athlete and coach contracts (Berri, 2018; Cooky & Messner, 2018; also see Delia, 2020).”
BackgroundAmericans’ attitudes towards the U.S. women’s national soccer team
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Henderson, H., Shipway, R., Nicholson, R., & Marmion, V. (2025) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614367.2025.2481564 · Cited by 4
Crawford, M. (2024) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/21674795241301308 · Cited by 5
“Analyses of the volume of coverage women athletes receive and the qualitative themes within coverage support scholarly claims that sport exists as an ideological terrain where hegemonic masculinity 1 thrives (Cooky & Messner, 2018; Messner, 2002).”
Negotiating identity and the development of incremental mindset in a female adolescent sport context
Zanin, A. C., Adame, E. A., Niess, L. C., & Martinez, L. V. (2020) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2020.1783389 · Cited by 6
“Third, given current cultural sport discourses that sanction girls for poor athletic performances (see Cooky & Messner, 2018), a “try hard” ascribed identity creates a doublebind for female adolescents in athletic contexts.”
BackgroundInfluentialWhat is the Work of Sportsmen and -Women, and (When) Should it be Paid Equally?
Kowalenko, R. (2021) · Sport Ethics and Philosophy · doi:10.1080/17511321.2021.1922495 · Cited by 4
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“…reflect complex individual and structural dynamics of inclusion/exclusion (Tomlinson 1998) and are known to manifest in unequal opportunities (Cooky and Messner 2018), media coverage (Duncan 2009), and funding (Piggott, Pike, and Matthews 2018) between men’s and women’s sports, whilst gender…”
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Leung, L., & Feldman, D. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132111690 · Cited by 3
McGinty-Minister, K., Whitehead, A. E., Champ, F. M., Aggarwal, M., Barreto, M., & Swettenham, L. D. (2026) · Sport in Society · doi:10.1080/17430437.2026.2661648 · Cited by 2
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Zarrugh, A., Carpenter, E. G., Ginnings, J., et al. (2020) · Teaching Sociology · doi:10.1177/0092055x20924836 · Cited by 2
Finally … the team! Navigating obstacles in girls’ access to football
Corvino, C., Palumbo, M., Morozzi, C., & Gozzoli, C. (2024) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2024.2376917 · Cited by 2
“…recognized, for instance, that there are socially constructed ideals, stereotypes, images, beliefs, ideologies, and mediated symbols on gender that play a significant role in shaping women’s experience in male-dominant contexts such as football (Cooky & Messner, 2018; Scandurra et al., 2019).”
Ecologies of Violent Gendering: Trans Dis/belonging and “Saving” Women’s Sports
Swartz, H. (2024) · College English · doi:10.58680/ce2024865363 · Cited by 1
Gender Typing of Sports in Croatia
Marelić, M., Đurković, T., & Antekolović, L. (2025) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci14020058 · Cited by 1
Unequal Road: Agency, Aspiration, and Migration in the Sporting Journeys of Ghanaian Female Athletes
Charway, D., Nyawornota, V. K., Antwi, B. B., Amoah, L., & Oppong-Yeboah, N. Y. (2025) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/01937235251401869 · Cited by 1
“…the colonial and patriarchal underpinnings of international sports structures (Biyanwila, 2018; Henne & Pape, 2018), which continue to prioritize male athletes while subjecting female athletes (Cooky & Messner 2018), especially those from the Global South to additional layers of marginalization.”
Cleats on, battle real: sustainability and gender equality in women’s football
ÖRNEK, S., Beşiktaş, M. Y., Terekli, M. S., Erkan, M., & Aksakal, N. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743515 · Cited by 1
“This finding aligns with Cooky and Messner (2018) argument that female athletes are systematically economically undervalued and with Öztürk (2017) identification of a “lack of future” scenario in Turkey.”
An Introduction to American Sportswomen’s Apparel
Fuller, L. K. (2020) · New femininities in digital, physical and sporting cultures · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45477-7_1 · Cited by 1
Valtorta, R. R., Morini, M., & Monaci, M. G. (2024) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2024.2439392 · Cited by 1
“This segregation, combined with the emphasis on physical-ity, positions sports as a significant social and cultural arena for reinforcing notions of male dominance and female subordination (Cooky & Messner, 2018).”
All-Mighty Soccer and the Structure of Gender Stereotypy in Romania
Nagel, A., Voiculescu, S., & Mirică, S. N. (2025) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci14110637 · Cited by 1
“It also impacts their self-image and career prospects, strengthening gender inequality and threatening the long-term viability of inclusive sports systems (Cooky and Messner 2018).”
Introduction to Sportswomen’s Apparel Globally
Fuller, L. K. (2020) · New femininities in digital, physical and sporting cultures · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46843-9_1
Moraga, J. E. (2022) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/01937235221099149
“For many scholars, sport is an invaluable gendered social realm whereby gender roles, gendered dynamics, and power differentials can fi nd interpretative fl uidity (Cooky & Messner, 2018; Messner & Sabo, 1990; Messner, 1992; Pringle, 2005).”
La corporate governance nelle organizzazioni sportive: un approccio di genere. Report finale 2022
Salvador, M. L. E., Cimbrini, T. D., Fernandes, E., et al. (2022) · Universidad de Zaragoza eBooks · doi:10.26754/uz.978-84-18321-52-8
Corporate governance in sports organizations: A gendered approach. Final report 2022
Salvador, M. L. E., Cimbrini, T. D., Fernandes, E., et al. (2022) · Universidad de Zaragoza eBooks · doi:10.26754/uz.978-84-18321-53-5
Souchon, N., Pria, Y. D., Leroux, N., et al. (2023) · Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité · doi:10.1051/sm/2023019
Pierre de Coubertin’s Ode to Sport: A Feminist Reassessment of Gender Bias in Olympic Ideals
Arshad, D. N. J. (2025) · Synergy International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies · doi:10.63960/sijmds.v2i1.35
Recruitment and Retention Issues of Female Athletes: Triathletes in Trinidad and Tobago
Rampersad, A. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1476-285420250000026008
Sexual Violations in Youth Sport: Gendered Mechanisms of Alienation?
Solstad, G. M., & Stefansen, K. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1476-285420250000025005
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McCree, R. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198945246.003.0097
Filipović, M., Savuljić, I., Durlević, S., et al. (2026) · doi:10.5937/atavpa25168f
SADIK, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760960
“This expectation is consistent with scholarship emphasising structural gender inequalities and unequal access to resources and visibility in sport, which can shape rights consciousness and rights-claiming positions (Cooky and Messner, 2018; Lemmon, 2019; Patel, 2021).”
‘ I learnt how to survive, not thrive’: gendered barriers in rugby league leadership
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Akhter, R., Paul, F. A., Saikia, P., & Thanseeha Begum, N. M. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68127-2_795-1
Richards, K., & Litchfield, C. (2026) · Sport in Society · doi:10.1080/17430437.2026.2681592
Jackson, R. E., Coen, S. E., Bowes, A., Kempski, A., Jewitt, S., & Parsons, J. L. (2026) · Geography Compass · doi:10.1111/gec3.70086
Gouveia, C. (2026) · Media Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/01634437261481074
A Silo of Their Own: The Compartmentalization of Media Coverage of Women’s Sports, 1989-2024
Cooky, C., Musto, M., Tworek, T., Newell, H., & Fung, O. (2026) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/21674795261480698
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- COOKY, C., & MESSNER, M. A.
- ORCID
- COOKY, CHERYL
- Venue
- Rutgers University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Rutgers University Press
- Published
- 2018-05-30
- OpenAlex
- W4242340188
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 7.20
- Type
- book
- Language
- de
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Rutgers University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Sociology, History and Politics of Sport
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › American Sports and Literature
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sports, Gender, and Society
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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