The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 27 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Tortura policial: más allá de “confesiones” para el sistema de justicia penal
Open accessAbstract
En este trabajo se discute la sobrerrepresentación de jugadores afrodescendientes en el futbol profesional ecuatoriano, tanto a nivel de equipos, como en selecciones nacionales. El concepto de “biotipo”, la industria del futbol, un cambio en la institucionalidad deportiva del país y los éxitos internacionales llevaron a la modificación favorable para su práctica en miras a la profesionalización y a la movilidad social. La inclusión mayoritaria de jugadores de El Valle del Chota en las seleccio-nes nacionales y las pocas salidas laborales ayudaron a crear escenarios favorables e incentivos para la práctica del futbol entre los chicos de la zona a pesar de las dificultades de su realización.
Overview
CoChat Summary
TL;DR
Using ENPOL 2016, the paper tests whether police torture in Mexico is driven not only by obtaining confessions/information but also by rent extraction and moral punishment. Logit models find independent effects for information pressure, economic benefit-seeking, and resistance/affront to authority, with variation across police types.
Key findings
- The torture variable is present in 40% of the ENPOL 2016 sample: respondents reported at least one of five severe aggressions (crushing with objects, asphyxiation, burns, electric shocks, sexual violations); the text reports N=49,982 cases (Cuadro 2 reports N=49,984).
- Probability of torture increases 33% when police pressured the detainee for information, 18% when police attempted to appropriate or directly requested money/goods, and 7% when the detainee resisted and/or tried to flee, interpreted as an affront to authority.
- State and ministerial police show an 11% higher probability of torture than municipal police; federal police show 6% higher. Interactions show the information effect is significant for state, federal, and ministerial police vs. municipal; the rent effect is significant for ministerial vs. municipal; resistance effects are significant for federal and ministerial vs. municipal.
- Among controls, men have a 15% higher probability; each additional year of age at detention lowers the probability by 0.5%; kidnapping raises it by 30%, extortion and illegal weapons possession by 22%, and homicide/vehicle, business, or home robbery up to 8%.
Methods
- Uses the 2016 National Survey of Population Deprived of Liberty (ENPOL), with N=49,982 cases, focusing on a reclusive population with high probability of having experienced torture.
- Dependent variable: dichotomous torture = one or more of five severe physical aggressions after detention and before presentation to the Ministerio Público: crushing, asphyxiation, burns, electric shocks, and sexual violations.
- Independent variables: pressured for information (42%), attempted appropriation/request of money or goods (25%), and resistance/flight (18%); controls include crime type, police type, sex, age at detention, and sentenced status. Main analysis is logistic regression, first general and then with interactions between police type and the main independent variables.
Limitations
- The paper states possible bias toward interviewees’ viewpoint; the reclusive population does not cover all police-population exchanges where illegal violence, including torture, may occur; and exact temporal dynamics are unknown, so attributing rent or information as the motive that activates torture is imprecise.
- The paper states that ENPOL captures people who ended in reclusion, not detainees who avoided the justice system by giving some benefit to authority, and that torture’s hidden nature makes measurement difficult.
- Evident from the text: the data are cross-sectional and self-reported, so the models are observational and cannot establish causality; the torture measure is restricted to five severe acts and excludes blows, kicks, or weapon injuries that may have occurred during detention dynamics.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
1 Valid · 7 Not valid · 27 Not checked · 72 Own results and interpretations
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“De igual forma, durante la mayor parte del siglo XX en México las actividades del comercio de drogas ilegales fueron gestionadas mediante arreglos bajo el control y la protección estatal.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Villareal, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Astorga, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Snyder, & Durán Martínez, 2009 source
In “The Breakdown of Protection in Mexico: From Stable Pacts to Strategic Violence,” the paper says the illicit drug market became linked to the political system under PRI control as prohibitions tightened in the 1920s. It describes deals and stable protection pacts between traffickers and state officials that persisted until the arrangement weakened in the late 1980s, supporting the claim about most of the twentieth century. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sin embargo, sí se distingue de las policías ministeriales y estatales en un impacto significativamente menor de la búsqueda de renta en la tortura.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Con respecto a la interacción entre la variable búsqueda de beneficio económico y tipo de autoridad, los resultados del cuadro 2 muestran que la policía ministerial presenta efectos significativos positivos en comparación con las policías municipales.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“posteriormente está la variable de apropiarse, o intentarlo, de dinero o pertenencias que presenta respuestas afirmativas en 25% de los casos.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sin embargo, sólo lo hacen respecto a las policías municipales, no con las estatales.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
66 more claims
Create a free account to see all 107 claims and every source verdict.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 23
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Metodología
“La base de datos con la que se trabajó cuenta con un total de N= 49,982 casos.”
§ Resultados
“| *p≤.1 **p≤0.05 ***p≤0.01 | N= 49,984 | |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Resultados
“la probabilidad de que las policías estatales y ministeriales cometan tortura durante las detenciones, manteniendo el resto de las variables en sus valores promedio, aumenta 11% respecto a las detenciones realizadas por los policías municipales.”
§ Resultados
“| Policía Ministerial | 1.52*** | 0.05 | 0.10*** | 0.007 |”
Citations
Cites
POLICE SUBCULTURE RECONSIDERED
HERBERT, S. (1998) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01251.x · Cited by 390
Edge of the Knife: Police Violence in the Americas.
Jacobs, D., & Chevigny, P. G. (1997) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2076793 · Cited by 359
Chan, J. B. L., Devery, C., & Doran, S. (2003) · University of Toronto Press eBooks · doi:10.3138/9781442674783 · Cited by 354
Huggins, M. K., Haritos‐Fatouros, M., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2002) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520928916 · Cited by 321
Police Use of Force: Individuals, Situations, and Organizations
Friedrich, R. J. (1980) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/000271628045200109 · Cited by 253
Villarreal, A. (2002) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240206700401 · Cited by 171
Police Power: Police Abuses in New York City.
Manning, P. K., & Chevigny, P. G. (1969) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096016 · Cited by 156
Conduct unbecoming: The social construction of police deviance and control
(1986) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/0047-2352(86)90132-7 · Cited by 154
Police brutality-answers to key questions
Reiss, A. J. J. (1968) · Society · doi:10.1007/bf02804717 · Cited by 148
Gerber, T. P., & Mendelson, S. E. (2008) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00333.x · Cited by 134
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Birkbeck, Christopher, & Gabaldón, Luis G. (2002). La disposición de agentes policiales a usar la fuerza contra el ciudadano. En Briceño-León, Roberto (ed.), Violencia, sociedad y justicia en América Latina (pp. 209-243). Buenos Aires, Argentina: CLACSO.
- Black, Donald (1976). The behavior of law. Nueva York: Academic Press.
- Chevigny, Paul (1993). Urban police violence in Brazil: Torture and Police Killings in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro after Five Years. News from Americas Watch, 5(5), 1-30.
- Gabaldón, Luis G., & Birbeck, Christopher (1998). Criterios situacionales de funcionarios policiales sobre el uso de la fuerza física. Capítulo Criminológico, 26(2), 99-132.
- Kutnjak, Sanja (2005). Fallen Blue Knigths: Controlling Police Corruption. Nueva York: Oxford University Press.
- Muir Jr., William K. (1977). Police: Street corner Politicians. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
- Van Maanen, John (1978). The Asshole. En J. Van Maanen, & P. Manning (eds.), Policing: A view from the streets (pp. 302-328). Santa Mónica: Goodyear Publishing Co.
- 10.2307/3088942 · DOI
Cited by
Mendoza, A. A. (2024) · Cahiers des Amériques latines · doi:10.4000/123ua · Cited by 2
Oñate, S. P. (2024) · Revista digital de estudios organizacionales. · doi:10.69509/35s8pc66 · Cited by 1
Crimen y género como determinantes en las prácticas de tortura en México
Ruíz, A. S., Guzmán, G. R., & Texta, Y. E. S. (2023) · Trayectorias Humanas Trascontinentales · doi:10.25965/trahs.5477
Tortura (s) en el siglo XXI. ¿Expansión en contextos democráticos?
(2023) · Trayectorias Humanas Trascontinentales · doi:10.25965/trahs.5476
La tortura como un fenómeno recurrente e invisibilizado en México, el caso de Jalisco
Gallardo, A. J. V., Trejo, M. D. L. M., & DELGADILLO, L. E. G. (2025) · Trayectorias Humanas Trascontinentales · doi:10.25965/trahs.7482
Metadata
- Authors
- Silva Forné, C., & Padilla Oñate, S.
- Venue
- Estudios Sociológicos de El Colegio de México
- Publisher
- El Colegio de Mexico, A.C.
- Published
- 2022-05-11
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 119
- Pages
- 487-526
- ISSN
- 0185-4186 (ISSN-L)
- 2448-6442
- OpenAlex
- W4281563378
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 1.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- es
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Estudios Sociológicos de El Colegio de México (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime, Illicit Activities, and Governance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Torture, Ethics, and Law
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Keywords
- police torture, police brutality, criminal justice system, confession, punishment, informal policing, Mexico
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
