Agency Reconsidered
Open accessAbstract
The concept of "agency" in games and other playable media (also referred to as "intention") has been discussed as a player experience and a structural property of works.We shift focus, considering agency, instead, as a phenomenon involving both player and game, one that occurs when the actions players desire are among those they can take (and vice versa) as supported by an underlying computational model.This shifts attention away from questions such as whether agency is "free will" (it is not) and toward questions such as how works evoke the desires agency satisfies, employ computational models in the service of player action and ongoing dramatic probability, use interfaces and mediation to encourage appropriate audience expectation, shift from initial audience expectation to an understanding of the computational model, and can be shaped with recognition of the inherently improvisational nature of agency.We focus particularly on agency in relation to the fictional worlds of games and other playable media.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper reframes agency in playable media as a relational phenomenon between player and game, arising when desired actions are supported by a computational model of the fictional domain. It uses prior theories and design cases to argue that designers should align dramatic probabilities, material affordances, interfaces, and improvisational play rather than treat agency as free will or mere interactivity.
Key findings
- Agency is defined as a player–game phenomenon: it occurs when what players want to do is available to them and backed by an underlying software model, and the reverse also holds; this separates it from free will, simple participation, or mere activity.
- The paper synthesizes earlier accounts—Murray’s experience-based view, Church’s intention and perceivable consequence, and Mateas’s structural balance of formal and material affordances—and argues that story and agency are not inherently opposed; apparent conflict comes from mismatches between a fiction’s dramatic probabilities and the actions the system supports.
- Dow’s comparison of three Façade versions (desktop, voice-controlled desktop, and augmented reality) found that greater presence and realism can reduce agency; voice input felt natural but concealed constraints, keyboard was easier to learn, and AR players related the experience more to real life and had higher expectations.
- Design implications include using computational models with representational fit, guiding players from initial expectations to model understanding, choosing interfaces that match audience expectations, and supporting improvisation and plan failure that keeps the fictional world moving, as discussed through Hocking’s Far Cry 2 case.
Methods
- Conceptual and design-theoretical paper; the authors report no new empirical experiment of their own.
- It draws on prior scholarship and design examples, including Murray, Church, Mateas, Laurel, Wardrip-Fruin, Hocking, and Sudnow, and games such as Eliza, SimCity, Mario, Quake, Façade, Far Cry 2, and Breakout.
- Main analysis is argumentative synthesis and case-based interpretation; it also discusses Dow’s dissertation study of three Façade versions as empirical evidence and traces agency discussions over roughly twelve years.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors say they are not defending their definition on theoretical grounds but showing it highlights design and interpretation issues; they acknowledge the absence of a Holodeck and unsolved AI problems; they note that mapping their view to actor-network or activity theory would require careful work and that overlap with Harrell and Zhu’s complementary work is limited.
- Evident: no new empirical data or formal validation is presented; the argument relies on selected examples and prior studies.
- Evident: Dow’s study is summarized as evidence, but its own methodological limitations are not detailed in this paper.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Premisecitation
Dow and his collaborators concluded that greater presence and realism can sometimes reduce agency.
“Dow and his collaborators reached the unexpected conclusion that an increased sense of presence and realism can actually act to decrease agency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In Dow's study, the augmented reality version of Façade greatly increased players' sense of presence.
“As one would expect, this resulted in a greatly increased sense of presence for the players.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Agency requires the construction of a playable software model of the domain of the fictional world.
“In other words, agency requires the construction of a playable software model of the domain of the fictional world.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In the AR version, players found it harder to move from their first expectations to actions the software model could support.
“It was more difficult for players to successfully transition from their initial expectations to acting in terms supported by the underlying software model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Agency, even in partial form, is what makes these experiences successful.
“But the phenomenon of agency, however partial, grounds the success of these experiences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Premisecitation
Greater presence caused players to expect more from the experience and from their involvement with the characters.
“However, this increased presence had the effect of leading players to have higher expectations for the experience and for their involvement with the characters.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In Dow's study, many players after the AR version compared the experience to real life, not to games or other media.
“In fact, in interviews after playing the AR version many players related the experience to a real-life situation, rather than to experiences with games or other forms of media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Mateas's structural definition allows a clearer diagnosis of adventure game problems than Church's account does.
“This definition allows Mateas to make a clearer diagnosis of adventure game problems than Church.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Even in immersive virtual reality or simple movement in Mario, agency is not supported the way it is in the everyday physical world.
“But even in relation to the simple act of movement in Mario, or Laurel's proposed virtual reality trip to the moon, our agency is not supported the way that it is in the everyday physical world.Paul Dourish points this out [6]:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6]
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- Premisecitation
Far Cry 2's original design had features meant to make players plan assaults that would weaken enemy forces, but these were removed during development.
“The original design of Far Cry 2 involved a number of features that would encourage players to carefully plan assaults that would result in the overall weakening of the forces they were fighting.But those features were dropped in development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Unless the vocabulary of playable computational models is convincingly expanded, independent and mainstream games aiming for agency will probably stay close to their current foundations.
“Until the vocabulary of playable computational models is convincingly broadened, both independent and mainstream games that seek to create experiences of agency are unlikely to stray far from the fundamentals of their current ground.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Because agency had been established in the affinity game, players thought they could have an impact in the therapy game.
“But, crucially, with agency having been established during the affinity game, they believed it was possible to have an impact.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In Far Cry 2, the design team shaped and partly guaranteed how player plans would fail.
“Things would go wrong with player plans -as they do in most games -but the manner in which this would happen was shaped and somewhat guaranteed by the design team.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The signals players get about computational models are wrong, creating a gap between what they expect and what actions and responses are actually possible.
“Player expectations of computational models are incorrectly signaled, creating a gulf compared with the actions and responses that are possible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Many players kept consoling, provoking, and engaging Façade's characters in the therapy game even when their actions did not affect the underlying model or produce a meaningful response.
“Many continued to console, provoke, and otherwise engage Façade's characters during the therapy game, even when their actions were not having an impact on the underlying model and not resulting in a meaningful response from the game.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
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- Interpretationreasoning
Making the improvisational space of play continuous rather than interrupted and reset probably yields more satisfying play, where players learn what agency needs through encouragement to experiment rather than punishment.
“Shaping the improvisational space of play into an ongoing one, rather than one of interruption and reset, does seem likely to lead to more satisfying play experiences, in which the understanding needed for agency is developed more through encouragement to experimentation than punishment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Agency happens not by carrying out plans but through play in often unpredictable settings, using resources that range from physical entrainment in controls to short- and long-term plans.
“Agency doesn't take place through executing plans, but while playing in often unpredictable environments, drawing on resources that operate at timescales ranging from physical entrainment in control systems (which players exercise more quickly than conscious thought could intervene) to the short-and longterm plans Church suggests.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Audience expectation stays active even once players start to understand the system.
“Rather, it shows that audience expectation is still active even after system understanding begins to develop.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 38
- May combine two claims. 39
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
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PremisecitationChurch makes explicit that the combination of intention and perceivable consequence in Mario is a way players come to understand the game world.
“In addition, Church's discussion makes explicit that the combination of intention and perceivable consequence in Mario is a way that players come to understand the game world.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5]
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PremisereasoningMateas defines agency structurally: players experience agency when there is a balance between material and formal constraints or affordances.
“This leads Mateas to a structural definition of agency: Players will experience agency when there is a balance between the material and formal constraints.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTo create player agency in relation to a fictional world, it is necessary to suggest dramatically probable events, make material affordances available for those actions, and provide underlying system support for interpreting actions and producing perceivable responses that preserve or coherently extend dramatic probabilities.
“To create the phenomenon of player agency in relation to a fictional world it is necessary to suggest dramatically probable events, make material affordances available for taking those actions, and provide underlying system support for both the interpretation of those actions and the perceivable system response to those actions (which should preserve dramatic probabilities or suggest coherent new”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMateas's approach makes clear that story and agency are not in conflict; their apparent conflict comes from attempts to marry stories suggesting certain dramatic probabilities with materials for action that are not commensurate.
“Mateas's approach also makes it clear that story and agency are not in conflict.Rather, they are closely tied.Their apparent conflict comes from consistent attempts to marry stories that suggest certain dramatic probabilities with materials for action that are not commensurate (and often not in the same domain).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
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InterpretationreasoningSuch software models can be abstract but must have a fundamental representational fit with their domain, audience, and interface.
“Such models can be quite abstract, as they are inevitably in most board games, but they must have a fundamental representational fit with their domain (and, as discussed below, their audience and interface).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn adventure games, there are typically many more material affordances than formal affordances, so there are many things to do but no clear sense of why one action would be preferable to another.
“In the adventure genre there are typically many more material affordances than formal affordances -so there are many things to do, but no clear sense of why one action would be preferable to another.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
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PremisecitationChurch suggests that simply understanding the world encourages players to form goals, while Murray leaves this topic untouched.
“Church suggests that simply understanding the world encourages players to form goals, while Murray leaves this topic untouched.”
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- cites [16]
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PremisecitationMateas suggests that games themselves excite the desires that, when well designed, they can satisfy through agency.
“Mateas generally suggests that games themselves excite (through dramatic probability and presenting materials for action) the desires that, when well-designed, they can satisfy through agency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
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Interpretationnone givenIn a game, players may not know how to speak with characters, what statements might have an impact, or whether speaking is possible on a purely functional level.
“But in a game we may not know how to speak with characters, what statements might have an impact, or even if it is possible to speak -on a purely functional, rather than social, level.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationChurch argues that simple consistent controls combined with predictable physics make it easy for players to have intention.
“However Church's focus is not on movement itself, but rather on how the simple and consistent controls offered for movement, combined with predictable physics, make it easy for players to have intention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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PremisecitationFaçade's requirements include believable computer-controlled characters and a new approach to natural language understanding.
“These requirements range from believable computer-controlled characters (capable of making their internal states interpretable through performance) to a new approach to natural language understanding (to allow the player to take linguistic action in a manner balanced with the rest of the spectacle).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
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May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationreasoningSome players stop playing Eliza, while others discover it is a textual transformation device and experience agency in relation to Eliza as a software toy, but not in relation to the fictional world of Eliza/Doctor.
“The result, for some audience members, is to stop playing with Eliza.But others feel invited to play in a new way, discovering more about the system, and eventually coming to dialogue like this: These players have discovered that Eliza is, at heart, a textual transformation device, turning each audience statement into a reply (either through substitution of a rote response or through selective re-”
- Also stated in: § AGENCY AND SOFTWARE MODELS · plain
“This is an experience of agency in relation to Eliza as a software toy, but not in relation to the fictional world of Eliza/Doctor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § AGENCY AND SOFTWARE MODELS · plain
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMateas locates Murray's concept of agency at the point of character in Laurel's hierarchy.
“Mateas begins his intervention by locating Murray's concept of agency at the point of character in Laurel's hierarchy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThere are major design issues for encouraging agency: supporting actions suggested by the world, helping players move from initial expectations to understanding how their actions affect the model, presenting an interface appropriate to the model, and acknowledging the improvisational nature of play.
“We argue that there are a number of major design issues for those who wish to encourage agency, including supporting the actions suggested by the world, helping players transition from their initial expectations to an understanding of how their actions have impact on the model, presenting an interface appropriate to the model, and design that acknowledges the improvisational nature of play.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: A design that supports agency is key to many successful games and other works of playable media.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLaurel's work focuses on well-formed interactive experiences enabled by computers, using Aristotelian theory as one guide.
“Laurel's work focuses on well-formed interactive experiences, including fictions, enabled by computers, for which she takes Aristotelian theory as one guide.”
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- cites [13]
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Interpretationnone givenThe authors propose that agency is a phenomenon involving both player and game, occurring when the actions players want are among those they can perform (and vice versa), supported by an underlying computational model.
“We shift focus, considering agency, instead, as a phenomenon involving both player and game, one that occurs when the actions players desire are among those they can take (and vice versa) as supported by an underlying computational model.”
- Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain
“We, instead, argue that agency is a phenomenon, involving both the game and the player, one that occurs when the actions players desire are among those they can take (and vice versa) as supported by an underlying computational model.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe original SimCity does not enable all actions a player might imagine a city planner could take; for example, mixed-use development is impossible.
“The system obviously does not enable all the ways the player might imagine a city planner could act.For example, mixed-use development is impossible in the original SimCity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18]
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Interpretationnone givenIn complex games like SimCity or Façade, players often continue learning while playing, and this learning is seldom fully finished.
“In more complex cases (e.g., SimCity or Façade) the learning process is often ongoing during play and rarely fully complete (few players could reimplement the systems they implicitly understand through play).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMurray separates agency from participation and activity; agency is not mere participation or activity.
“Murray's agency is not participation, not simply doing what we are expected to do without shaping the larger structure.”
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PremisecitationMurray and Church each pose the explicit question of how story can be combined with agency or intention, answering largely with examples.
“Murray and Church each pose the explicit question of how story can be combined with agency/intention, answering largely in the form of examples.”
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- cites [16]
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- cites [5]
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Interpretationnone givenMovement in the examples from Murray, Church, and Laurel is a minimal case of the shift from first expectations to acting based on a software model.
“Movement -as in the examples of Murray, Church, and Laurel -is simply a very minimal instance of this transition from initial expectation to operating in terms of a software model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationSimCity's break from expectation differs from the Eliza effect: in Eliza, the initial impression is revealed as removed from the internal system model and the system ceases to represent a fictional world, whereas SimCity's underlying model is designed as a representation of a dynamic city.
“But this break from expectation is quite different from that experienced with the Eliza effect.Playing with Eliza, the initial impression encouraged by the Doctor character is eventually revealed as utterly removed from the internal system model.As this happens, the system ceases to operate as a representation of a fictional world.Eliza/Doctor stops seeming like a simulated therapist and instead”
- Also stated in: § AGENCY AND SOFTWARE MODELS · plain
“On the other hand, the underlying model in SimCity is designed as a representation of a dynamic city -inspired in part by Jay Forrester's work on urban dynamics.”
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- Also stated in: § AGENCY AND SOFTWARE MODELS · plain
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InterpretationreasoningAgency cannot simply happen by players feeling motivated to take actions based on dramatic probability and then acting through everyday-world knowledge; they must act through the available interface material and in terms of the underlying software model.
“Given this, agency cannot simply happen by players feeling motivated to take certain actions, based on dramatic probability, and then working to take the actions via their knowledge of the everyday world.They must take action through the available interface material and in terms of the underlying software model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6]
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PremisecitationA stronger sense of realism and consequence made some players feel less free to play, while they felt more able to experiment through the desktop mediation.
“In addition, the feeling of greater realism and consequence of action led to some players feeling less free to play -they felt more able to experiment via the mediated experience of the desktop.”
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Interpretationnone givenA lot of players misunderstand parts of the games they play, and their experience swings between agency and the illusion of agency, and even brief breakdown, in very successful games.
“In fact, many players actively misunderstand aspects of games they play and their experience oscillates between agency and the illusion of agency (and even moments of minor breakdown) in very successful games.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPlaying SimCity begins with expectations of city planning and a graphical user interface; initial stages of agency are supported, and deeper support for agency develops.
“Just as with the experience of Eliza, playing SimCity begins with audience expectations.Rather than expectations of Rogerian therapy (dramatic possibilities) and free-form textual input (material for action), SimCity begins with expectations of city planning and the graphical user interface (a palette of icons, maps for information and icon placement, status messages, etc).As play begins, initial”
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InterpretationreasoningThe Eliza effect works because the player's initial expectations are eventually too greatly violated; the illusion of agency is short lived.
“As play continues it is revealed (as Lucy Suchman and others have discussed) that the Eliza effect works, for however long it works, because of the power of the initial expectations of the player, which are eventually too greatly violated.The illusion of agency is short lived.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMurray argues that in a tabletop game of chance, players may be busy but lack true agency because their actions are not chosen and their effects are not related to their intentions.
“Murray also argues that activity alone is not agency: For instance, in a tabletop game of chance, players may be kept busy spinning dials, moving game pieces, and exchanging money, but they may not have any true agency.The players' actions have effect, but the actions are not chosen and the effects are not related to the players' intentions.”
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PremisecitationMurray offers chess as a high-agency experience.
“Murray offers chess, instead, as a high-agency experience.”
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InterpretationcitationEliza/Doctor excels at suggesting dramatic probability and providing seemingly commensurate material for action, but breakdowns damage dramatic probability and make players question whether the materials can be used intentionally.
“First, breakdowns damage the sense of dramatic probability in the situation.Second, they make the audience member question whether the materials presented for action (the whole of the English language, as invited by the open text field) can actually be used intentionally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18]
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InterpretationreasoningIn SimCity, elements presented on the surface have analogues within internal processes and data; successful play requires understanding how initial expectation differs from system operation and incrementally building a model of the system's internal processes through experimentation.
“While initial engagement with SimCity is based on player expectation, the elements presented on the surface have analogues within the internal processes and data.Successful play requires understanding how initial expectation differs from system operation, incrementally building a model of the system's internal processes based on experimentation.This is how agency happens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18]
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PremisecitationIn the therapy game, dramatic probabilities are not nearly as clearly articulated, and players felt uncertain about what they could do to influence the situation.
“Here the dramatic probabilities are not nearly as clearly articulated -and players felt uncertain what they could do to influence the situation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
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Interpretationnone givenAgency rises and falls during play, but players react differently when the possibility of agency was established earlier in the experience.
“Agency waxes and wanes during play, but players respond differently if the possibility of agency has already been established earlier in the experience.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationHocking's initial aim for Far Cry 2 was to support Church's idea of intentional play.
“Hocking describes an original goal of the game as supporting Church's notion of intentional play.”
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PremisecitationMacCallum-Stewart and Parsler examine design techniques in Vampire: The Masquerade -Bloodlines that imply meaningful choice, or small variations, but reduce to binaries or non-choices.
“They discuss game design techniques used in Vampire: The Masquerade -Bloodlines to suggest meaningful choice, or even small variations in choice, that boil down to binaries or non-choices.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14]
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PremisecitationHocking's diagnosis is that Far Cry 2 ended up with a much shorter composition-to-execution cycle than he had first imagined.
“His diagnosis is not that the game was moving away from intentional play, or toward an imbalance between composition and execution, but that it was developing a much shorter cycle between composition and execution than he had originally envisioned.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
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InterpretationreasoningFaçade is built so that play goes on even when players fail to exercise agency, keeping the fictional world alive and offering new chances to act, giving both story-focused and meta-players room to experiment.
“Façade is also designed so that play continues even when player attempts to exercise agency fail, continuing the fictional world and providing new opportunities for action, allowing both story-focused players and meta-players (those explicitly pushing the bounds of the system) space for experimentation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPlayers learned and used the keyboard interface more easily than the voice interface, because their expectations came from everyday computer use, not face-to-face talk.
“Players found the keyboard-based interface easier to learn and use than the voice-based interface, because expectations were based on everyday computer interaction, rather than everyday face-to-face conversation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
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InterpretationreasoningEven though many believe more immersive and realistic games are good, a stronger feeling of being present in a real situation can harm agency.
“Despite widespread belief that more immersive and realistic games are desirable, players having a greater sense that they are present in a real situation can be detrimental to agency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHarrell and Zhu focus on distinguishing models of agency centered on the player as a character in a dramatic situation from other models, and on how play fits into players' wider cultural world, so their work overlaps little with this paper.
“However, they are particularly interested in differentiating models of agency that focus on the player's actions as a character in a dramatic situation from those that do not -and are also interested in how game playing exists in the wider cultural world of players -leading to relatively little overlap in our discussions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8]
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PremisecitationIn Dow's study, the voice-based interface came naturally but dissatisfied the audience, and the real constraints of interaction were hidden.
“In addition to issues with AR and system expectation, they also found that voice-based interface came naturally, but dissatisfied the audience.The possibilities for voice interaction seemed endless, however the real constraints of interaction were hidden.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenGames also belong to the broader material and social worlds where humans experience the ability and need to act.
“Though games are certainly also part of the larger material and social worlds in which humans feel the ability and need to act.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHocking thinks too much composition produces puzzle-like play, too much execution produces ride-like play, and neither is truly game-like.
“Too much emphasis on composition leads to puzzle-style experiences, while too much emphasis on execution leads to ride-like experiences, neither of which Hocking considers game-like.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationGoals and plans serve as resources for action, and action is fundamentally situated and improvisational.
“As outlined in that context, it is important to remember that goals and plans are resources for action -which is fundamentally situated and improvisational.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIf applied to game worlds, the words ability and need would carry quite different meanings.
“and we submit that both the meaning of ability and need would be quite different if used in reference to game worlds.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSudnow's book tells how he realized that plans are just one resource for the improvisational, embodied act of play.
“Sudnow's book makes a narrative of the realization that plans are only one resource for the improvisational, embodied act of gameplay.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [17]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenFaçade responds coherently both to invited replies and to dramatically probable attempts to change the topic.
“Façade also does a good job of coherently responding both to responses of the invited sort and (dramatically probable) attempts to change the subject.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPlayers bring assumptions about the play domain to games, and to play well they must move from those first assumptions to an often implicit grasp of how the software model supports that domain.
“Players come to games with assumptions about the domain of play.To play successfully they must transition from their initial assumptions about this domain (e.g., movement or conversation) to an understanding, often largely implicit, of how it is supported by the software model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome players clearly appreciated these moments, while others wanted more nuance in these situations.
“Some players expressed explicit appreciation for these moments, while others wished they could open these situations to nuance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe player is asked to form new intentions from the changed situation and then act on them, instead of retrying the same failed plan from the same point.
“The player is invited to form intentions based on the new situation (a brief composition phase) and then attempt to act on them (a brief execution phase) rather than try to execute the same failed plan, or another one, from the same point in the game world, again.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAn inappropriate or overly simple model forces the designer to choose between very limited input, which stops players from really playing, or breakdown, where the work can no longer coherently suggest dramatic probabilities and players lose faith in the materials for action.
“Depending on an inappropriate or overly-simplified model leaves the designer with two choices: extremely constrained input (so that players are effectively not able to play) or breakdown as the work is unable to continue coherently suggesting dramatic probabilities and players lose faith in the materials provided for action.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone givenResearchers like Lucy Suchman and Philip Agre have sharply criticized such formulations in cognitive science and AI.
“As discussed [earlier], such formulations have been severely critiqued in cognitive science and artificial intelligence by researchers such as Lucy Suchman and Philip Agre.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationWardrip-Fruin observes that talk about agency can become misleading when it makes player goals and plans seem to dictate player actions.
“In response, Wardrip-Fruin [18] notes that discussions of agency can fall into potentially misleading formulations in which player goals and plans appear to determine player actions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAgency itself becomes expected, so even when it is absent, the audience looks for it and may be more engaged than if the experience had never supported agency.
“Agency becomes part of the expectation, so that even when agency is not occurring, the audience seeks it and can be more fully engaged than if the experience did not support agency at all.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHocking discusses how planful improvisation shows up in modern big-budget games and how design can support it, using Far Cry 2 as his case study.
“Responding to Church, he describes how we see something like planful improvisation in modern, big-budget gamesand how we can design to support it -using his project Far Cry 2 as a case study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationnone givenTo support agency, a designer must use or build a computational model of the play domain that the work's dramatic probabilities suggest.
“Supporting agency requires employing or crafting a computational model of the play domain suggested by the work's dramatic probabilities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHocking says the game drifted further from his initial vision and became stronger as a result.
“Overall, Hocking speaks of having the game move progressively further from his original conceptionand becoming a stronger game in the process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTheir example lacks any real agency tied to the larger fiction, which remains fixed.
“What their game example lacks is any area of actual agency related to the larger fiction, which is fixed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningPlans are only one resource in fundamentally improvisational play.
“Rather, these plans will be only one resource in fundamentally improvisational play.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
A design that supports agency is key to many successful games and other works of playable media.
“a design that supports agency is key to many successful games and other works of playable media”
The paper relies on this without support.
Murray and Church have been widely influential in their communities, while Buckles's discussion largely fell on deaf ears.
“Buckles's discussion, however, largely fell on deaf ears, while Murray and Church have been widely influential in their communities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
True artificial intelligence for characters, worlds, or stories remains unsolved.
“Given that we have not solved the problems of true artificial intelligence (for characters, worlds, or stories), our interfaces should not work to approximate the Holodeck.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Intervention undermines the player's model of the environment's rules and reduces agency.
“Intervention subverts the player's mental model of the environment's rules and decreases agency, the player's feeling that they can take meaningful action to affect the story (Wardrip-Fruin et al. 2009).”
From Multiagent Narrative Experience Management as Story Graph Pruning (2023) · cites this paper as Wardrip-Fruin et al. 2009
The Discussion says that incorrectly signaled expectations of a game's computational model can be detrimental to agency, and Agency and Interfaces describes increased realism making players less able to act in terms the software supports. The paper does not establish that intervention generally subverts a player's understanding of the rules or decreases agency; its Agency and Improvisation section describes designed interruptions that keep play moving. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrevious work on player agency has been largely theoretical or inspired by design practice, focusing on defining and conceptualizing what agency is and how it manifests in relation to narrative interaction and gameplay.
“Previous work has been largely theoretical or inspired by design practice, focusing on defining and conceptualizing what agency is and how it manifests in relation to narrative interaction and gameplay e.g.[1,8,18,24,26,27,32,38].”
From ”Naked and on Fire”: Examining Player Agency Experiences in Narrative-Focused Gameplay (2021) · cites this paper as [38]
Expectations are a central consideration for player agency.
“Expectations are a central consideration for player agency [32,38]”
From ”Naked and on Fire”: Examining Player Agency Experiences in Narrative-Focused Gameplay (2021) · cites this paper as [38]
Cites
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“In some ways our approach might be seen as related to work around concepts such as “actor-network theory,” which do not reserve agency for human beings, but suggest that things are also actors [3, 4, 11].”
BackgroundCallon, M. (1984) · The Sociological Review · doi:10.1111/j.1467-954x.1984.tb00113.x · Cited by 7,763 · see citing works
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“Murray’s Agency “Agency” is the title of the fifth chapter of Murray’s Hamlet on the Holodeck, in which she describes agency as “the satisfying power to take meaningful action and see the results of our decisions and choices” and “the thrill of exerting power over enticing and plastic materials” [16].”
BackgroundWhere the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction
Dourish, P. (2001) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/7221.001.0001 · Cited by 1,866 · see citing works
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“In some ways our approach might be seen as related to work around concepts such as “actor-network theory,” which do not reserve agency for human beings, but suggest that things are also actors [3, 4, 11].”
BackgroundExpressive Processing: Digital Fictions, Computer Games, and Software Studies
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“” In response, Wardrip-Fruin [18] notes that”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationA preliminary poetics for interactive drama and games
Mateas, M. (2001) · Digital Creativity · doi:10.1076/digc.12.3.140.3224 · Cited by 196 · cited 2× · see citing works
“It has also been defined in structural terms, in Michael Mateas’s argument, as caused by a balance in formal and material affordances [15].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLAUREL, B. K. (2024) · DigitCult - Scientific Journal on Digital Cultures · doi:10.54103/2531-5994/31045 · Cited by 2 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Mateas begins by summarizing Murray’s concept of agency and Brenda Laurel’s adaptations of Aristotle [12, 13].”
Flagged first, then by citations
10 of the 19 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Barrett, M. "Academic intent." Electronic Book Review 2004. Available at www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/transient
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- Dow, S. "Understanding User Engagement in Immersive and Interactive Stories," Ph.D. dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
(2017) · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2017.01.001 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Interactivity refers to the degree to which users of a medium can influence the form or content of the mediated environment, whereas agency refers to the empowerment of the user to take meaningful actions in the world, which yield effects that relate to her intention [36].”
BackgroundIs More Agency Better? The Impact of Student Agency on Game-Based Learning
Sawyer, R., Smith, A., Rowe, J., Azevedo, R., & Lester, J. C. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61425-0_28 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“In this paper, student agency, which is related to constructs such as control [10], self-determination [11], and self-regulated learning [12], aligns with the definition from the game design literature, which defines player agency as the degree of freedom and control that a student has to perform meaningful actions in…”
MethodAchieving the Illusion of Agency
Fendt, M. W., Harrison, B., Ware, S. G., Cardona-Rivera, R. E., & Roberts, D. L. (2012) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-34851-8_11 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
(2018) · doi:10.3390/arts7040051 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The impact of the player/interactor on the experience and their agency with regards to narrative is another important and frequently discussed aspect (e.g., (Wardrip-Fruin et al. 2009; Harrell and Zhu 2009; Knoller 2010; Mason 2013).”
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Objective Metrics for Interactive Narrative
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“Furthermore, choice range is not the goal per se of interactive narrative research; rather, it is agency that is pursued [12], [25].”
BackgroundMultiagent Narrative Experience Management as Story Graph Pruning
Ware, S., Garcia, E. T., Fisher, M., Shirvani, A., & Farrell, R. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Games · doi:10.1109/tg.2022.3177125 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
”Naked and on Fire”: Examining Player Agency Experiences in Narrative-Focused Gameplay
Carstensdottir, E., Kleinman, E., Williams, R., & Seif El-Nasr, M. S. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445540 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Towards an Understanding of Character Believability
Aljammaz, R., Wardrip–Fruin, N., & Mateas, M. (2023) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/3582437.3582466 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“As we argued, believable characters are far from realistic ones; in fact, designing scenarios that lean more towards realism can raise the user’s expectation, in turn causing skepticism when they cannot explore their intended actions [57].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGoal-Oriented Interactions in Games Using LLMs
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Bateman, C. (2016) · Socio-affective computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41316-7_1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Contextualised open educational practices: Towards student agency and self-directed learning
Terblanché-Greeff, A. C., Claassen, A., Gouws, A., Williams, A. A., Ebrahim, B. K., Grobler, C., Liebenberg, C., Gray, C., Bisschoff, C. A., Christmals, C. D., et al. (2022) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2022.bk345 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Open educational practices for self-directed learning: A staff fellowship as a case study
Olivier, J., Bunt, B. J., & Dhakulkar, A. (2022) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2022.bk345.01 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Elvig, M. L., & Mekler, E. D. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790841 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The notion of affordances has also been taken up in games scholarship, for example, to conceptualize agency [8, 68, 114], and meaning-making with archaeological game-worlds [100].”
Cardona-Rivera, R. E. (2011) · Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Foundations of Digital Games · doi:10.1145/2159365.2159402 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Analizando la Inmersión Emergente de los ARG a través del Concepto de Transinmersión
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Media of Representation in Game Science
Lukosch, H. K., Meijer, S., Heeswijk, M. D. W.-V., et al. (2026) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/10468781261443353
“Wardrip-Fruin [90] discusses the concept of player agency, which I extend by using social psychology to show that agency is part of what contributes to player motivation.”
BackgroundActions And Activities As Game Design Building Blocks For Varied Theme-Centric Gameplay
Junnila, M. (2026) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/3815598.3815642
Bonsai: Designing for Cultivation in AI Interactive Digital Narratives
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“Stochastic, unpredictable emergent content disposed after each playthrough undermines both author and player trust in the system, including the choice poetics [21] the author constructs and the predictability of consequences experienced by the player [29].”
- Authors
- Wardrip-Fruin, N., Mateas, M., Dow, S., & Sali, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- DiGRA Digital Library
- Published
- 2009-01-01
- ISSN
- 2342-9666
- OpenAlex
- W4409613914
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2014: 3
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Artificial Intelligence in Games
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Narrative Theory and Analysis
- Keywords
- agency, games, intention, player actions, computational model, audience expectations, improvisation, fictional worlds
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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