Role of viral regulatory and accessory proteins in HIV-1 replication
Open accessAbstract
Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) is the causative agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease characterized by CD4+ T lymphocyte depletion. HIV-1 replicates actively in a variety of cells by encoding several regulatory (Tat and Rev) and accessory (Vpr, Vif, Vpu, and Nef) proteins. Accessory proteins, thought initially to be dispensable for infection, have now been shown to be important for efficient infection in vivo. Recent evidence suggests that certain viral proteins, like Vif, have evolved to overcome the antiviral mechanisms of the host, while proteins like Nef, which are markers for disease pathogenesis in vivo, help to increase pathogenesis by targeting bystander cells. Thus, these proteins control many aspects of the virus life cycle as well as host cell function, namely gene regulation and apoptosis. Understanding the mechanisms by which the virus is able to successfully replicate in host cells and subsequently cause gradual destruction of the immune system may yield new approaches for therapeutic strategies. In this review, we attempt to integrate information on the role of these regulatory and accessory proteins, emphasizing their interactions with other viral and cellular components, and the subsequent effect on viral replication.
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A unified classification system for eukaryotic transposable elements
Wicker, T., Sabot, F., Hua‐Van, A., Bennetzen, J. L., Capy, P., Chalhoub, B., Flavell, A. J., Leroy, P., Morgante, M., Panaud, O., et al. (2007) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg2165 · Cited by 3,021 · see citing works
Cells of the central nervous system as targets and reservoirs of the human immunodeficiency virus
Kramer-Hämmerle, S., Rothenaigner, I., Wolff, H., Bell, J. E., & Brack‐Werner, R. (2005) · Virus Research · doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2005.04.009 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
HIV-1 associated dementia: symptoms and causes
Ghafouri, M., Amini, S., Khalili, K., & Sawaya, B. E. (2006) · Retrovirology · doi:10.1186/1742-4690-3-28 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
CD4+ T Cell Depletion in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: Role of Apoptosis
Février, M., Dorgham, K., & Rebollo, A. (2011) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v3050586 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Structural Disorder in Viral Proteins
Xue, B., Blocquel, D., Habchi, J., Uversky, A. V., Kurgan, L., Uversky, V. N., & Longhi, S. (2014) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr4005692 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Lai, M., Zimmerman, E. S., Planelles, V., & Chen, J. (2005) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.79.24.15443-15451.2005 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Mishra, P. M., Verma, N. C., Rao, C., Uversky, V. N., & Nandi, C. K. (2020) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.03.001 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Lehmann, M., Milev, M. P., Abrahamyan, L. G., Yao, X., Panté, N., & Mouland, A. J. (2009) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m808531200 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Kambal, A., Mitchell, G., Cary, W., Gruenloh, W., Jung, Y., Kalomoiris, S., Nacey, C., McGee, J., Lindsey, M., Fury, B., et al. (2010) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1038/mt.2010.269 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
HIV-1 and HTLV-1 Transmission Modes: Mechanisms and Importance for Virus Spread
Kalinichenko, S., Komkov, D., & Mazurov, D. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14010152 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Nef, Vif, Vpr, and Vpu are not involved in the expression of viral genes, but play an important role in the pathogenesis of AIDS, and the evasion of the host’s immune response [9].”
BackgroundUse of HIV as a gene transfer vector.
Pluta, K. D., & Kacprzak, M. M. (2009) · Acta Biochimica Polonica · doi:10.18388/abp.2009_2490 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Hennig, M., Munzarová, M., Bermel, W., Scott, L. G., Sklenář, V., & Williamson, J. R. (2006) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja060165t · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Influence of the 2′-Hydroxyl Group Conformation on the Stability of A-form Helices in RNA
Fohrer, J., Hennig, M., & Carlomagno, T. (2005) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2005.11.043 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Plasma membrane signaling in HIV-1 infection
Abbas, W., & Herbein, G. (2013) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes · doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.06.020 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Antiviral roles of APOBEC proteins against HIV-1 and suppression by Vif
Romani, B., Engelbrecht, S., & Glashoff, R. H. (2009) · Archives of Virology · doi:10.1007/s00705-009-0481-y · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Highly active antiretroviral therapy and human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis
Cook, J. E., Dasgupta, S., Middaugh, L. D., Terry, E. C., Gorry, P. R., Wesselingh, S. L., & Tyor, W. R. (2005) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.20479 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
30 years of HIV therapy: Current and future antiviral drug targets
Nuwagaba, J., Li, J. A., Ngo, B., & Sutton, R. E. (2024) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2024.110362 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
On the Solution Conformation and Dynamics of the HIV-1 Viral Infectivity Factor
Marcsisin, S. R., Narute, P. S., Emert‐Sedlak, L. A., Kloczewiak, M. A., Smithgall, T. E., & Engen, J. R. (2011) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2011.04.053 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
19F-Site-Specific-Labeled Nucleotides for Nucleic Acid Structural Analysis by NMR
Scott, L. G., & Hennig, M. (2015) · Methods in enzymology on CD-ROM/Methods in enzymology · doi:10.1016/bs.mie.2015.05.015 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Nature and Pathogenicity of Micro-organisms
Fierer, J., Looney, D. J., & Péchère, J.-C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-6285-8.00002-2 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Inhibition of HIV-1 virus replication using small soluble Tat peptides
Agbottah, E. T., Zhang, N., Dadgar, S., Pumfery, A. M., Wade, J. D., Zeng, C., & Kashanchi, F. (2005) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2005.09.062 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A Review: The Antiviral Activity of Cyclic Peptides
Chia, L. Y., Kumar, P. V., Maki, M. A. A., Ravichandran, G., & Thilagar, S. (2022) · International Journal of Peptide Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.1007/s10989-022-10478-y · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Reciprocal transactivation between HIV-1 and other human viruses
White, M. K., Gorrill, T. S., & Khalili, K. (2006) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2006.04.006 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Wolff, H., Hadian, K., Ziegler, M., Weierich, C., Kramer-Hämmerle, S., Kleinschmidt, A., Erfle, V., & Brack‐Werner, R. (2006) · Experimental Cell Research · doi:10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.11.020 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Venkatachari, N. J., Buchanan, W. G., & Ayyavoo, V. (2008) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2008.03.015 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Evolution of Dendritic Cell Immunotherapy against HIV‐1 Infection: Improvements and Outlook
Mohamed, H., Miller, V., Jennings, S. R., Wigdahl, B. L., & Krebs, F. C. (2020) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2020/9470102 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Jumping Ahead with Sleeping Beauty: Mechanistic Insights into Cut-and-Paste Transposition
Ochmann, M. T., & Ivics, Z. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13010076 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Viral Pathogenesis, Modulation of Immune Receptor Signaling and Treatment
Kim, W. M., & Sigalov, A. B. (2008) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09789-3_22 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Prime-boost immunization strategies against HIV-1
Bråve, A. (2007) · Figshare · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Innovative Approaches to Develop Prophylactic and Therapeutic Vaccines against HIV/AIDS
Cafaro, A., Macchia, I., Maggiorella, M. T., Titti, F., & Ensoli, B. (2009) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1132-2_14 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Affranchino, J. L., & González, S. A. (2014) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v6010264 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Tuning Rex rules HTLV-1 pathogenesis
Nakano, K., & Watanabe, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.959962 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Illustrating the machinery of life: Viruses
Goodsell, D. S. (2012) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.20636 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Goz, E., & Tuller, T. (2016) · Journal of Computational Biology · doi:10.1089/cmb.2016.0052 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Nature and pathogenicity of micro-organisms
Fierer, J., Looney, D. J., Kok, M., & Péchère, J.-C. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-04579-7.00001-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Soares, A. E. R., Soares, M. A., & Schrago, C. G. (2008) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-008-9112-6 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Dahiya, S., Nonnemacher, M. R., & Wigdahl, B. L. (2012) · Journal of General Virology · doi:10.1099/vir.0.041186-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The SCHOOL of nature. IV. Learning from viruses
Sigalov, A. B. (2010) · Self/Nonself · doi:10.4161/self.1.4.13279 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
HIV-1 Tat protein attenuates the clinical course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)
Karampoor, S., Zahednasab, H., Bokharaei‐Salim, F., Mirzaei, R., Mojallal-Tabatabaei, Z., Esghaei, M., & Keyvani, H. (2019) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105943 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
In silico prediction of HIV-1-host molecular interactions and their directionality
Chai, H., Gu, Q., Hughes, J., & Robertson, D. L. (2022) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009720 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Therapeutic innovations against HIV
Uckun, F. M., & D’Cruz, O. J. (2006) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents · doi:10.1517/13543776.16.3.265 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Engineering Baculo- and Lentiviral Vectors for Enhanced and Targeted Gene Delivery
Kaikkonen, M. U. (2008) · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rev-derived peptides inhibit HIV-1 replication by antagonism of Rev and a co-receptor, CXCR4
Shimane, K., Kodama, E. N., Nakase, I., Futaki, S., Sakurai, Y., Sakagami, Y., Li, X., Hattori, T., Sarafianos, S. G., & Matsuoka, M. (2010) · The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2010.05.005 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Delkhosh, A. S., Hadadianpour, E., Islam, M. M., & Georgieva, E. R. (2024) · Journal of Structural Biology X · doi:10.1016/j.yjsbx.2024.100117 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Reacciones y alteraciones del sistema inmune durante la infección por el VIH-1
Guarín, C. J. M., Fernández, M. E. M., & López, M. T. R. (2006) · Institutional Repository University of Antioquia (University of Antioquia) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pandey, D., Podder, A., Pandit, M., & Latha, N. (2016) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2016.1227722 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Do Viral Proteins Possess Unique Features?
Xue, B., Williams, R. W., Oldfield, C. J., Goh, G. K., Dunker, A. K., & Uversky, V. N. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118135570.ch1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
NMR assignments of HIV-2 TAR RNA
Carlomagno, T., Amata, I., Williamson, J. R., & Hennig, M. (2008) · Biomolecular NMR Assignments · doi:10.1007/s12104-008-9112-x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Peroxisomes and Viruses: Overview on Current Knowledge and Experimental Approaches
Ferreira, V., Ferreira, A., & Ribeiro, D. (2023) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-3048-8_19 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Khairkhah, N., Shahhosseini, F., Agi, E., Milani, A., & Bolhassani, A. (2023) · Protein and Peptide Letters · doi:10.2174/0929866530666230403093538 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Casp8p41: The Protean Mediator of Death in CD4 T-cells that Replicate HIV
Sampath, R., Cummins, N. W., & Badley, A. D. (2016) · Journal of Cell Death · doi:10.4137/jcd.s39872 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Szojka, Z. I., Mótyán, J. A., Miczi, M., Mahdi, M., & Tőzsér, J. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21165907 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Overexpression of recombinant HIV-1 Subtype C Tat and Nef in a Salmonella vaccine vector
Chin’ombe, N., Lebeko, M., & Kgatle, M. M. (2013) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2013.16.19.2759 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Na, H., Huisman, W., Ellestad, K. K., Phillips, T. R., & Power, C. (2010) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2010.04.009 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dendritic cells during the HIV-1 infection.
Montoya, C. J., & Piedrahita, L. D. (2007) · Colombia medica · doi:10.25100/cm.v38i4.529 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kierczak, M., Rudnicki, W. R., & Komorowski, J. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-76973-6_16 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Strain-specific epistasis shapes fitness landscapes of APOBEC3G antagonism by HIV-1 Vif proteins
Langley, C. A., Lilly, M., Malik, H. S., & Emerman, M. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aed4872 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
HIV-1 Biology at the Protein Level
Ott, D. E. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-6542-7_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Role of HIV-1 Proteins in Alzheimer's Disease Pathology
Giunta, B. N. (2011) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Caracterização biológica e molecular de recombinantes naturais de HIV-1.
de Melo, F. L. (2011) · doi:10.11606/t.42.2011.tde-20102011-133503 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Muller, S., & Des̀granges, C. (2005) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420038156.ch9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The role of the HIV-1 reverse transcriptase mutation H208Y to drug resistance and viral fitness
Malik, S. A. (2011) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Improving the immunogenicity of HIV-1 DNA vaccines.
Hallengärd, D. (2010) · Figshare
Studies on HIV-1 core assembly
Abdurahman, S. (2007) · Figshare
Llewellyn, G. N. (2012) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan)
Characterization of hiv-1 populations in infected cells
Josefsson, L. (2013) · Figshare
Ruiz, A. J. (2010) · KU ScholarWorks (University of Kansas)
DETECTION OF HIV-1 VIRAL PROTEIN R IN HIV ENCEPHALITIC BRAIN TISSUE
Dale, E., & Wheeler, A. C. (2005) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
UNIFYING VIRAL EVOLUTION AND IMMUNOLOGICAL PATTERNS TO INVESTIGATE RISK OF HIV-1 DISEASE PROGRESSION
Norström, M. M. (2012) · Figshare
Strategies to enhance the potency of HIV-1 DNA vaccines
Hallengärd, D. (2011) · Figshare
Open Access SHORT COMMUNICATION
Iio, A., Nakagawa, Y., Hirata, I., Naoe, T., & Akao, Y. (2010)
de Medeiros, R. M. (2012) · Americanae (AECID Library)
Immune reconstitution in HIV-1 infection : the effects of antiretroviral and immune therapy
Sullivan, A. (2011) · UTAS Research Repository · doi:10.25959/23250950
Evaluation of the NIH clinical collection to identify potential HIV-1 integrase inhibitors
Abrahams, S. (2014) · University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Institutional Repository on DSpace (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg)
Assessing the potential of non-integrating lentiviral vectors for cardiovascular gene therapy
Chick, H. E. (2011) · Enlighten: Theses (The University of Glasgow) · doi:10.5525/gla.thesis.3045
Thobakgale, C. (2011) · ResearchSpace (University of KwaZulu-Natal)
Microbiologia, G. E. (2012)
McGovern, R. A. (2015) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0166738
Tardif, M. R. (2005) · Corpus Université Laval (Université Laval)
Assessing Immunological and Microbiome Determinants of HIV Susceptibility in the Male Genital Tract
Galiwango, R. M. (2020) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Zamani, F., Bolhassani, A., Shahbazi, S., Faghih, A., & Sadat, S. M. (2021) · Avicenna Journal of Medical Biotechnology · doi:10.18502/ajmb.v13i3.6369
Villiers, M. D. (2015) · Minnesota journal of law science & technology · doi:10.24926/15529541.3714
Identification and evaluation of inhibitors targeting the HIV-1 integrase-LEDGF/p75 interaction
Harrison, A. T. (2014) · University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Institutional Repository on DSpace (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg)
DELINEATING THE ROLE OF SIV-VPR AND VPX ON DENDRITIC CELLS, NK CELLS, AND IMMUNE FUNCTION
Baglyas, K. (2008) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
Manipulation of the cell cycle by HIV-1
Bandini, M., & Sherer, N. M. (2026) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20250120
Mechanisms of Inflammation in HIV-Associated Dementia
Giunta, B. N., Fernandez, F., & Tan, J. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30398-7_19
- Authors
- Seelamgari, A.
- Affiliations
- George Washington University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Seelamgari, Anila
- Venue
- Frontiers in Bioscience
- Publisher
- IMR Press
- Published
- 2004
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1-3
- Pages
- 2388
- ISSN
- 1093-4715 (ISSN-L)
- 1093-9946
- DOI
- 10.2741/1403
- OpenAlex
- W2107174433
- Cited by
- 98
- References
- 329
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 0.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in bioscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- George Washington University
- National Institutes of Health
- U.S. Public Health Service (A13969)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R29AI044357, AI 44357, R01AI043894, AI43894)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Virology › HIV Research and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › HIV/AIDS drug development and treatment
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and Retrovirus Studies
- Keywords
- HIV-1, viral regulatory proteins, viral accessory proteins, Tat, Rev, Vif, Vpr, Vpu, NEF, viral replication, host-virus interaction, apoptosis, gene expression regulation, AIDS pathogenesis, CD4 depletion
- MeSH terms
- Viroporin Proteins, Animals, Cell Cycle, Cell Nucleus, Chromatin, Humans, Transcription, Genetic, Virus Replication, Signal Transduction, HIV-1, Transcriptional Activation, Down-Regulation, Gene Products, nef, Gene Products, rev, Gene Products, tat, Gene Expression Regulation, Viral, Gene Products, vpr, Gene Products, vif, Apoptosis, Active Transport, Cell Nucleus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus Proteins, nef Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, vif Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, rev Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, tat Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, vpr Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Viral Regulatory and Accessory Proteins
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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