Feedback in Written Instruction

“…previous literature states that feedback can be primarily used to correct errors—or in other words, to decrease the gap between current and desired performance—it does not delineate how one deals with errors while providing or processing feedback (e.g., Gibbs & Simpson, 2005; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Kulhavy (1977) identifies feedback as a set of procedures used to inform the learner, whereas Ramaprasad (1983) defines feedback as the gap between optimum and actual achievement.”

“In order to be most effective, feedback must not exist in a vacuum but be a consequence of one’s performance (Kulhavvy, 1977; Pandero, Jonsson, & Strijbos, 2016).”

“Process feedback, according to Kulhavy (1977), becomes a “form of new instruction, rather than informing the student solely about correctness” (p. 212).”

“There appears to be a common agreement among researchers (e.g., Kozma & Bagert-Drowns, 1987; Kulhavy, 1977; Mason & Burning, 2000) on the definition of feedback in general and the conditions under which it can be effective in terms of student learning.”

“The understanding of why they made mistakes and how to correct such mistakes helps students correct their mistakes and increase their achievement (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Kulhavy (1977) has shown that participants chose to spend more time studying feedback after a high-confi dence error, but the hypercorrection eff ect occurs even when duration of the feedback is held constant ( Butterfi eld & Metcalfe, 2001 ).”

“Reporting this task easy could mean that these students have higher prior knowledge or higher confidence in prior knowledge which contributed to their performance [40, 41].”

“The microcomputer can provide a test without opportunity to look ahead for the answers and simultaneously can provide immediate feedback at a time of high receptivity to promote learning (Kulhavy, 1977; Markus et al., 1980).”

“In a review of research on feedback Kulhavy (1977) noted that studies that tended to not find benefits of feedback were those that allowed what he called presearch availability (see also BangertDrowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991).”

“Subsequently, the effectiveness 1 3 of feedback on performance thus depends on the recipient accepting, modifying, or rejecting it as abstruse or comprehendible information (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Though, an augmented feedback is not always necessary for learning to occur [Kulhavy, 1977].”

“…and Timperley (2007) state, “When feedback is combined with more a correctional review, the feedback and instruction become intertwined” (p. 82) until “the process itself takes on the forms of new instruction, rather than informing the student solely about correctness” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 212).”

“Indeed, Kulhavy (1977) stated that the more complicated feedback programs may become learning tasks in themselves .”

“A plethora of research has recorded the beneficial role that feedback plays in facilitating learning (Dihoff, Brosvic, Epstein, & Cook, 2004; Fyfe, Rittle-Johnson, & DeCaro, 2012; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Kulhavy, 1977; Smith & Kimball, 2010).”

“According to [26], feedback should be simple and clear.”

“Chapter 2 The value of feedback and the potential of ICT support 17 Because the research on the complexity of feedback with respect to learning gains is sometimes contradictory (Kulhavy, 1977; Mory, 2004), it is not guaranteed that sophistication of feedback always pays off.”

“Automated feedback provides learners with informative or corrective content in response to a given answer (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977; Lipnevich & Panadero, 2021; Shute, 2008; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2019), that is, feedback informs the learner about how well…”

“Thus, it is vital for effective learning that students might learn faster and effective when they get corrective feedback (Carless, 2006; Hattie and Gan, 2011; Kulhavy, 1977; Scheeler and Lee, 2002; Thurlings et al., 2013).”

“Kulhavy (1977) conceived feedback as ‘any of the numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if an instructional response is right or wrong’ (211). sadler (2010) clarified that this earlier understanding of feedback – ‘now viewed as unduly narrow’ (535) – implies that, once this feedback…”

“Kulhavy defined feedback generically as any device used to tell a learner whether their response is correct or not [18].”

“Initially, feedback was simply associated with knowledge of results where simple outcomes were classified as either correct or incorrect (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“학습활동에 있어 피드백 활동이란 부정적인 행동에는 부정적인 반응을 부여하고 바람직한 행동에는 보상을 부여해주는 것과 같이 학습자가 보여주 는 행동의 적절성에 대해 교수자가 정보를 제공하는 것 이다[14].”

“Along these lines, Kulhavy (1977) argues that it is necessary to deal with the correct and incorrect answers independently. The purpose of feedback on a correct answer is to show learners that their understanding is appropriate to the lesson taught. A correct answer matches the feedback, i.e., students are able to rea…”

“Long before the development of SRS technology, some educators presented evidence suggest­ ing that feedback to students (the type now provided by clickers) is a stimulant to learning (Guthrie 1971; Kulhavy 1977; Kulik and Kulik 1988).”

“Foremost is the finding that disconfimation (negative) feedback impacts achievement much more than confirmation (positive) feedback (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Although the literature on teacher evaluation is immense, Levin (1979) noted that there was little evidence concerning its reliability, validity, or effects of most of the techniques.”

“The use of feedback in education is complex, needs to be continuous, and often generates new learning [1,6,7].”

“Kulhavy et al. (1976) and Kulhavy (1977) argue that feedback that does not emphasize skills cannot go beyond identifying learning deficits.”

“The impact of feedback upon learning is a well-established construct to develop competency and transformation, making it a critical aspect of teacher education (Drago-Severson & Blum-DeStefano, 2016; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Knowles, 2005; Kulhavy, 1977; Sadler, 1989).”

“The result is similar to the survey conducted by Lalande (1982). Most students admitted that they took teacher feedback seriously and correct by themselves first, then ask for teacher’s help if they have problems.”

“Our study was consistent with the previous research works reported by Kulhavy (1977), Sadler (1989), and Wiliam (2011) on what is considered an effective feedback.”

“Simply providing the correct answer can short-circuit the feedback process as pre-search availability (Kulhavy 1977), or the degree that correct response information is available, keeps students from understanding and implementing the feedback.”

“We know feedback is more efective when it is directed at a faulty task rather than at a completely new task in which the student has no prior knowledge or experience [25].”

“Um diesen Effekt, von Kulhavy (1977) als presearch availability bezeichnet, zu verhindern, wurden das Online-Umfrage-Tool in ViviAn so programmiert, dass Studierende erst auf die Musterlösung zugreifen konnten, nachdem sie die entsprechenden Diagnoseaufträge beantwortet hatten.”

“In this experiment, it was shown that ‘practice without feedback produces little learning’ (Pellegrino et al., 2001: 87). Elawar and Corno’s (1985) study, meanwhile, clearly showed how specific feedback on how to improve ameliorated primary school students’ performances in mathematics.”

“In most feedback studies however, the need for students to take an active role in accepting, modifying or rejecting feedback Kulhavy (1977) has been emphasized.”

“3460131 earlier, where it was called a presearch availability effect because students can locate and copy answers without reading or searching through the learning material [27, 2].”

“In our tutoring system, we are attempting to give feedback about the errors, directly after each step of the solution, which could be effective, following the advice of Kulhavy [ 3 ], that "supplying feedback after an error is probably far more important than providing confirmation".”

“However, the more complex feedback procedures may become instructional tasks in themselves (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Kulhavy [8] suggests that feedback and instructions should be seen as two ends of the same continuum, meaning that the process itself takes on the form of new instruction, rather than informing the learner solely about correctness.”

“delivery process may be ineffective due to an interference of inconsistent information (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Grounded in the notion of “feedback as a new form of instruction” (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Kulhavy, 1977), this model of WCF proposes three cyclical stages: selecting the focus, teaching the focus, and reinforcing the focus (Figure 1).”

“9 Meanwhile, delayed feedback may be more effective in promoting the student’s long-term retention of material.”

“Indeed, Kulhavy (1977) stated that the more complicated feedback programs may themselves become learning tasks.”

“Given these challenge of online learning, the role of feedback takes an even more essential role for successful learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977; Mory, 2003).”