Feedback in Written Instruction

“The study of feedback—in the form of reinforcement—dates back to Skinner’s assertion that it reinforces behavior (Kulhavy, 1977), but feedback itself is considered to be “instructionally powerful” (Cohen, 1985, p. 33) for many contexts, not just behavior.”

“Previous research has indicated that providing the correct answer to a question, irrespective of whether it was answered correctly, is essential in enhancing the retention of information and avoiding future mistakes (Butler et al., 2008; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“…that feedback may not necessarily be effective because although the guidance offered can be accepted, it can also be modified or rejected (Kulhavy, 1977) Both staff and students, therefore, accepted the variability in extent of use of feedback, with staff ultimately feeling that once…”

“This means that the errors become truly salient events and can motivate further learning (26).”

“One current view of feedback [ 111 suggests that a critical component in the feedback process is the learner’s own metacognitive perception of whether his or her answer is correct-a term referred to as respome confidence [8, 12, 131 or response certitude [ 1 11.”

“Feedback on performance can be accepted, modified, or rejected by the individual [86] and thus may have a positive or negative effect on learning [87].”

“Whereas feedback in decision-making tasks has been viewed as a reinforcer (Frank & Claus, 2006; Holroyd & Coles, 2002), feedback in memory tasks has been viewed as a source of information for learning (Bangert-Drowns et al., 1991; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Corrective feedback is theorised to benefit learning via error correction, specifically by strengthening correct responses, weakening incorrect responses and facilitating the generation of correct alternatives (e.g., Clariana, Wagner, & Murphy, 2000; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“…a diferencia de los procesos físicos, cuando lo que se evalúa es el aprendizaje, el retorno de información al alumno a partir del análisis de los resultados no garantiza la modificación de su proceso de aprendizaje (Kulhavi, 1977; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Hounsell, Mccune, Litjens & Hounsell, 2005).”

“This feedback can promote the correction of errors (Kulhavy, 1977) and increase motivation (Mory, 2004).”

“However, the empirical evidence regarding the effects of different types of feedback is rather inconsistent and somewhat contradictory (e.g. Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Clariana, 1993; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Kulhavy, 1977; Mory, 2004).”

“The positive effect of performance feedback on learning and on adolescents' subsequent test performance is generally acknowledged (Crooks, 1988; Kulhavy, 1977; Rudman et al., 1980).”

“Fourth, providing feedback is an important factor for learning; in particular, correction feedback has a positive effect on the promotion of self-efficacy [22,32].”

“As Kulhavy (1977) stated,”

“In situations where the interpretation of knowledge is not correct, providing feedback has been proven to be effective in correcting performance (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“However, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the effect of feedback on student’s achievement was recognised and actively researched (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“In a study on feedback, Kulhavy [48] found that easily available feedback prompted students to copy answers rather than to go through an elaborate process of reasoning.”

“The effectiveness of feedback on learning and on subsequent test performance is generally ackowledged (Crooks 1988; Kulhavy 1977 ), and has been suggested as a key ingredient in college-level courses that promote more effective study practices (Light 1990).”

“…refers to as ‘old paradigm’ thinking: ‘any of the numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if an instructional response is right or wrong’ (Kulhavy, 1977: 211), and contemporary thinking: as ‘a process in which students engage with feedback from various sources and make use of it to…”

“Students who receive feedback before they have formulated their own answer do not learn as much as students that formulate their own answer before they are provided with feedback (Kulhavy 1977).”

“Kulhavy (1977) indicated that a delay in feedback could also produce good retention skills.”

“This implies that KR is the least effective type of feedback, followed by KCR, with elabora-tive feedback being the most effective (Bangert-Drowns et al., 1991; Clariana, Ross, & Morrison, 1991; Kulhavy, 1977; Lee-Sam-mons & Wollen, 1989; Pridemore & Klein, 1991).”

“We used the numerous observations made by researchers (Birenbaum & Tatsuoka, 1987; Guskey, 1987; Kulhavy, 1977; Pro vencher, 1985; Sassemath, 1975; Slavin, 1987) to deter mine the types of feedback.”

“It is suggested (e.g., Cohen, 1985; Kulhavy, 1977 ) that minimal feedback of correct/ incorrect to a student's solution (that is, simple confirmation feedback) is much”

“Feedback should close the gap between where students are and where they need to be (Kulhavy, 1977; Ramaprasad, 1983; Butler and Winne, 1995; Hattie and Timperley, 2007), ultimately improving academic achievement.”

“Feedback has been suggested as an important compo nent for improving performance in a variety of set tings, populations, and across several behaviors (Good & Brophy, 1984; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Postponing feedback permits individuals to purge unimportant or poorly processed information from working memory, facilitating the delayed-retention effect ( Kulhavy, 1977 ).”

“For a long time, feedback has been regarded as a strong external stimulus informing students explicitly what needs to be fixed or revised (Kulhavy 1977; Shute 2008).”

“…which responses are appropriate or inappropriate for successful performance (Adams, 1987; J. R. Anderson, 1982; Annett, 1969; Ilgen et al., 1979; Kulhavy, 1977) may lead to associative learning of those relationships displayed and memorization of which actions lead to positive outcomes but…”

“Feedback as a product can be understood as “any numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if an instructional response is right or wrong” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 211).”

“Researchers have shown that corrective feedback is one of the more effective techniques for basic instruction (Bloom, 1976; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“as a consequence, students’ perceptions of the accuracy of their responses became a critical component of their model (Kulhavy & Stock, 1989). Given the affective reaction, subsequent decision making by both teacher and student is not simply a progression of completely rational and dispassionate logical responses. Dec…”

“In a recent review of research on two types of feedback to learners during instruc­ tion, confirmation of correct re­ sponses and correction of incorrect ones, Kulhavy (1977) concluded that "the correction function is probably the most important aspect of feed­ back, and if one were given the choice, feedback followin…”

“The whole field of research into feedback is the subject of a booklength review by Annett (1969); Kulhavy (1977) is also a valuable source.”

“…that are spaced apart in time (i.e., distributed practice; Kornell, 2009; Wissman et al., 2012) and involve retrieval practice with correct answer feedback (Glover, 1989; Kulhavy & Stock, 1989), as can occur when fl ashcards are used repeatedly for self-testing and “ fl ipped over ” to check answers.”

“Kulhavy (1977) concludes that "In terms of test yield, supplying feedback after an error is probably far more important than providing confirmation.”

“In comparisons of the three types of feedback, EF has been found to be more effective than KR and KCR (Clariana et al., 1991; Kulhavy, 1977; Van der Kleij et al., 2015) showed that combining these feedback types is more effective than any specific type alone, especially with respect to higher-order…”

“This is in stark contrast with the impact that attitudes have on the uptake, given that “feedback is not necessarily a reinforcer, because [it] can be accepted, modified, or rejected” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007: 82, drawing on Kulhavy, 1977). As early as in 1977, Kulhavy related the importance of research on students’…”

“However, the empirical evidence regarding the effects of different types of feedback is rather inconsistent and somewhat contradictory (e.g., Bangert-Drowns, et al., 1991; Clariana, 1993; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Kulhavy, 1977; Mory, 2004).”

“As Kulhavy noted in 1977, learners can feedback may not be accepted by learners who can in fact adapt or reject it [32].”

“Cognitive theories highlight the importance of providing information that will support participants in changing their knowledge, thinking, and behavior, particularly if participants have misunderstood or mistaken elements of the intervention [32].”

“In this regard, prior research suggests that students' confidence in the knowledge they hold is an important factor that can influence their learning and learning behaviours (Kulhavy, 1977; Kulhavy et al., 1976).”

“Research has also established that it is not only the level of knowledge that can affect students’ learning behaviours but also their confidence in the knowledge they hold (Kulhavy, 1977; Kulhavy, Yekovich, & Dyer, 1976).”

“Due to their feedback functions, a specific problem can occur (e.g., Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Previous research also highlights the importance of targeting feedback at the appropriate level to ensure that students relate the content of the feedback to previously acquired knowledge and skills (Hattie and Timperley, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“In the purely instructional sense, feedback can be said to describe any communication or procedure given to inform a learner of the accuracy of a response, usually to an instructional question [5, 13, 22].”

“In line with previous review studies (see e.g., Azevedo & Bernard, 1995; Hattie, 2012; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Kulhavy, 1977; Shute, 2008; Swart, Nielen, & Sikkema-de Jong, 2019), we define feedback as individualised information in response to readers’ answers to comprehension questions about the text they read.”

“Similarly, feedback is strongly associated with better learning and performance (see Kulhavy, 1977).”