Feedback in Written Instruction

“Under this condition, feedback should have minimal effect regardless of whether or not the response is the correct one” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 226).”

“Response Certitude Kulhavy and Stock (1989) examined feedback and response certitude issues from an information-processing perspective.”

“In many cases feedback and formative assessment (or their equivalents) are not mentioned at all in either the body of the text or the index, although the books by Rowntree (1977), Bloom, Madaus and Hastings (1981), Black and Dockrell (1984) and Chater (1984) are notable exceptions.”

“Another work sometimes cited as evidence is Kulhavy (1977).”

“Research that examined the effects of feedback on learning from text was reviewed thoroughly by Kulhavy (1977).”

“Reviewing research on feedback effects in written instruction, Kulhavy (1977) generated four propositions.”

“It is not feasible here to summarise the findings from the four major reviews of feedback carried out by Natriello (1987), Crooks (1988), Black and Wiliam (1998), and Hattie and”

“With EF, however, the distinction between feedback (in terms of corrections) and instruction fades (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) because “the process itself takes on the forms of new instruction, rather than informing the student solely about correctness” (Kulhavy, 1977, p. 212).”

“The most widely accepted explanation of results from experiments on acquisition of test content is Kulhavy and Anderson's (1972) perseveration-interference theory.”

“Kulhavy (1977) coined the term presearch availability to describe the ease with which learners can find a correct answer without reading the lesson material.”

“By the time a comprehensive review of feedback studies was completed in 1977 (Kulhavy, 1977), research on the effects of feedback in instruction was concerned primarily with applying information-processing models to the feedback paradigm.”

“Kulhavy, R. W., & Stock, W. A. (1989). Feedback in written instruction: The place of response certitude. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 279!308. Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1988). Timing of feedback and verbal learning. Review of Educational Research, 58, 79!97. Kuo, T. M., & Hirshman, E. (1996). Investigation…”

“…have contended that feedback is functionally different from reinforcement and that delayed feedback is more effective because it gives errors a chance to dissipate, making the process of learning the correct response easier (e.g., Kulhavy , 1977; Kulhavy & Anderson, 1972; Kulhavy & Stock, 1989).”

“Kulhavy (1977) argued against any reinforcing quality of feedback by demonstrating that feedback did not benefit learning in verbal conditioning paradigms as reinforcement does in other situations.”

“The benefit of providing delayed feedback after incorrect responses may be the result of a decrease in response competition between the incorrect and correct responses (see also Kulhavy, 1977 ).”

“giving and receiving feedback is valence or sign (i.e., positive or negative; Kulhavy 1977).”

“resulting in poorer learning than without feedback (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Overall, feedback timing has little consistent impact on learning, although delayed feedback can facilitate retention [5,11,12].”

“…(1989) . . .any of the numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if an instructional response is right or wrong We assume they adhered to Kulhavy, 1977, p. 211 Sadler, (1989) . . .a key element in formative assessment. . . usually defined in terms of information about how successfully…”

“Kulhavy (1977) concludes that immediate feedback only contributes to learning when students do not have the opportunity to see the correct answer before responding.”

“Because of this feedback function, a specific problem can occur (e.g., Kulhavy, 1977).”

“14, Summer 2015 14:ar23, 5 into determining the correct answer and therefore reduces learning outcomes (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“ing, and Kulhavy’s (1977) classic study on written feedback.”

“Similarly, instructional explanations can even be harmful because they hinder learners in generating explanatory justifications of solution steps by themselves (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“, 1991) or focus on explaining other feedback phenomena (e.g., the relationship between response confidence and feedback processing; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“The fourth learning strategy, use feedback, has traditionally focused on external or outcome feedback (Butler & Winne, 1995), which, in general, results in performance improvement (Kulhavy, 1977; Kulik & Kulik, 1988).”

“Kulhavy and Anderson (1972; see also Kulhavy, 1977) found that delayed feedback resulted in better eventual performance than did immediate feedback in 8 of the 11 experiments that they surveyed, as well as in their own reported study.”

“Such understanding should aid the students' ability to correct mistakes and increase achievement (Kulhavy 1977).”

“…feedback timing effects developed under the Guthrian assumption have generally assumed that feedback has no effect on initially correct responses (Surber & Anderson, 1975) or, at most, confirms these responses so that the learner maintains them in memory instead of discarding them (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“…negative effects when it reduces mindfulness (e.g., overrelying on the feedback; Butler & Winne, 1995), draws attention to the self (e.g., evaluating one’s abilities; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996), or produces cognitive interference (e.g., confusing one’s response with the correct one; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“One prediction of this model is that participants will choose to spend more time studying the feedback after a high-confidence error; this was confirmed by Kulhavy (1977) .”

“Operational definitions of feedback have traditionally agreed that it is inherently a response to one’s performance or understanding and involves procedures used to tell a learner if a response is right or wrong (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Although several studies have found that a delay in feedback was effective, these effects might be limited to special experimental circumstances (Dempsey, Driscoll, & Swindell, 1993; Kulhavy, 1977; Kulik & Kulik, 1988).”

“Indeed, the use of feedback during instruction to facilitate learning has been a common focus of many researchers (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Kulhavy, 1977; Kulhavy & Stock, 1989; Kulik & Kulik, 1988).”

“Generally understood as the procedure used to tell a learner if a response or expression of current understanding is right or wrong (Kulhavy, 1977), the use of feedback as an instructional strategy is widely accepted by both educators and learners and endorsed in multiple theoretical models of…”

“The implications of research on feedback are clear in Kulhavy's (1977) mind.”

“…that error (Anderson, Kulhavy, & Andre, 1972; Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008; Butler & Roediger, 2008; Kang, McDermott, & Roediger, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977; Lhyle & Kulhavy, 1987; Metcalfe & Kornell, 2007; Metcalfe, Kornell, & Son, 2007; Metcalfe, Kornell, & Finn, 2009; Pashler, Cepeda,…”

“…& Birt, 1962; moore & smith, 1961, 1964; Rosenstock, moore, & smith, 1965; Wentling, 1973) or is even detrimental (lublin, 1965). however, Kulhavy (1977) and Roper (1977) suggested that the majority of this research was conducted with instruction that allows learners to view feedback…”

“Kulhavy (1977), however, warned that one of the dangers of computerized instruction is its ability to offer excessive feedback, and indeed, the ubiquitous presence of inaccurate or confusing feedback is an issue with AWCF.”

“As the cognitive revolution unfolded, the mechanistic notion f feedback as a motivator of behavior was replaced by the idea that he function of feedback is to provide information to the learner (for eview see Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Source Model type Informed by Focus of model Factors and processes included *Bangert-Drowns et al. (1991) Cyclical fivestage model Kulhavy (1977), Schimmel (1983), Kulik and Kulik (1988); meta-analysis of 40 articles on feedback effects on error correction Learner’s state in receiving mediated…”

“There it is defined as any communication or procedure that is aimed to inform a learner of the accuracy of a response to an instructional question (Carter, 1984; Cohen, 1985; Kulhavy, 1977; Sales, 1993).”

“In addition to providing the definition of feedback, Kulhavy (1977) also argued that the quality and effectiveness of feedback is influenced by “presearch availability,” a term that describes availability of the information necessary for the learning to occur.”

“As a result, subjects could answer the question by looking at the correct answer at the bottom of the screen rather than trying to retrieve it from memory (see Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 2001; Kulhavy, 1977).”

“effective than no feedback at all (Gilman 1969; Kulhavy 1977; Waldrop et al. 1986; Clariana et al. 1991).”

“By highlighting mistakes and offering explanations, elaborated feedback facilitates reflective activities such as validation of self-assessment and correction of mis-conceptions (Krause, 2007; Kulhavy, 1977; see also Kruger & Dunning, 1999).”

“There are many common factors, but all design models recommend that some level of practice and feedback be included in the instruction [l, 21.”

“Historically, feedback has generally been understood as the numerous procedures used to tell a learner if a response is correct or incorrect (Kulhavy, 1977).”

“Previous literature has supported the efficacy of providing feedback to improve performance (e.g., Alvero et al. 2001; Balcazar et al. 1985; Bangert-Drowns et al. 1991; Kulhavy 1977; Peeck et al. 1985; Vollmeyer and Rheinberg 2005) as well as PSI-type courses with respect to student performance (e.g., Austin 2000; Bus…”