Cited by 538Dye analysis and toxicityBioactive Compounds and Antitumor AgentsPharmacogenetics and Drug Metabolism

The reduction of azo dyes by the intestinal microflora

Chung, King-Thorn, Stevens, S. Edward, Cerniglia, Carl E.·1992·Critical Reviews in Microbiology

Abstract

Azo dyes are widely used in the textile, printing, paper manufacturing, pharmaceutical, and food industries and also in research laboratories. When these compounds either inadvertently or by design enter the body through ingestion, they are metabolized to aromatic amines by intestinal microorganisms. Reductive enzymes in the liver can also catalyze the reductive cleavage of the azo linkage to produce aromatic amines. However, evidence indicates that the intestinal microbial azoreductase may be more important than the liver enzymes in azo reduction. In this article, we examine the significance of the capacity of intestinal bacteria to reduce azo dyes and the conditions of azo reduction. Many azo dyes, such as Acid Yellow, Amaranth, Azodisalicylate, Chicago Sky Blue, Congo Red, Direct Black 38, Direct Blue 6, Direct Blue 15, Direct Brown 95, Fast Yellow, Lithol Red, Methyl Orange, Methyl Red, Methyl Yellow, Naphthalene Fast Orange 2G, Neoprontosil, New Coccine, Orange II, Phenylazo-2-naphthol, Ponceau 3R, Ponceau SX, Red 2G, Red 10B, Salicylazosulphapyridine, Sunset Yellow, Tartrazine, and Trypan Blue, are included in this article. A wide variety of anaerobic bacteria isolated from caecal or fecal contents from experimental animals and humans have the ability to cleave the azo linkage(s) to produce aromatic amines. Azoreductase(s) catalyze these reactions and have been found to be oxygen sensitive and to require flavins for optimal activity. The azoreductase activity in a variety of intestinal preparations was affected by various dietary factors such as cellulose, proteins, fibers, antibiotics, or supplementation with live cultures of lactobacilli.

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Crossref · 10.3109/10408419209114557

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116 of 116 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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  • Fibers, antibiotics, or supplementation with live cultures of lactobacilli can affect azoreductase enzyme activity.

    “fibers, antibiotics, or supplementation with live cultures of lactobacilli were able to affect azoreductase enzyme activity (Chung et al., 1992)”

    From Gut reactions: Breaking down xenobiotic–microbiome interactions (2019) · cites this paper as Chung et al., 1992

  • The metabolism of azo dyes to aromatic amines is carried out by azoreductases.

    “The metabolism of azo dyes to aromatic amines is also carried out by azoreductases”

    From Gut reactions: Breaking down xenobiotic–microbiome interactions (2019) · cites this paper as Chung et al., 1992

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Authors
Chung, K.-T., Stevens, S. E., & Cerniglia, C. E.
Affiliations
  • University of Memphis (US)
  • National Center for Toxicological Research (US)
Venue
Critical Reviews in Microbiology
Published
1992-01
Volume
18
Issue
3
Pages
175-190
ISSN
  • 1040-841X (ISSN-L)
  • 1549-7828
OpenAlex
W2038991343
Cited by
538
References
116
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 19
FWCI
9.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Critical Reviews in Microbiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Analytical Chemistry › Dye analysis and toxicity
  • Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Toxicology › Bioactive Compounds and Antitumor Agents
  • Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmacogenetics and Drug Metabolism
Keywords
azo dyes, gut microbiota, azoreductase, aromatic amines, anaerobic bacteria, cecal microbiota, dietary factors, flavin cofactor, food dyes
MeSH terms
Animals, Azo Compounds, Bacteria, Diet, Coloring Agents, Humans, Intestines, Oxidation-Reduction, Molecular Structure

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