Irrational use and non-prescription sale of antibiotics in Nigeria: A need for change

Faculty of Health, Sports and Science, University of South Wales, United Kingdom; Akinyandenu, Olusegun; Akinyandenu, Adeniyi; Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Nigeria

doi:10.31254/jsir.2014.3222

Cited by 65Antibiotic Use and ResistancePharmacy and Medical PracticesPharmaceutical Quality and Counterfeiting

Irrational use and non-prescription sale of antibiotics in Nigeria: A need for change

Faculty of Health, Sports and Science, University of South Wales, United Kingdom, Akinyandenu, Olusegun, Akinyandenu, Adeniyi, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Nigeria·2014·Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research

DOI 10.31254/jsir.2014.3222

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Abstract

The sale of antibiotics without medical prescription has been observed in many countries. The practice is more pronounced in developing and low income countries where legislations and regulations are weak. In these countries, antibiotics are illegally purchased without medical prescriptions and very little effort has been made to tackle the situation. The role of pharmacists in contributing to healthcare remains debatable. In Nigeria, there are deficiencies in the quality of current professional practice. Community pharmacists are now seen as retailers and businessmen rather than health care providers. Nigerians are therefore left to accept the helpful and harmful practices such pharmacists. Self-medication with antibiotics is a universal problem and variations regarding such practices are obvious around the globe. The practice cuts across culture, gender, age, health status, social status, race and occupation. Irrational use of antibiotics increases the risk of bacterial resistance and adverse drug reactions. It has been found to produce various adverse effects in humans. It is the objective of this paper to discuss the irrational use and non-prescription sale of antibiotics in Nigeria. It will discuss the evidence, the concept of self-medication, resistance and interactions, legislation, probable solutions, changes in practice and the concept of sustainability which would help guarantee the appropriate sale and rational use of antibiotics in Nigeria.

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Small-scale business loans with very low interest rates offered to pharmacists to facilitate setting up pharmacies were found to improve pharmacy practice.
“In this regard, small-scale business loans with very low interest rates offered to pharmacists to facilitate setting up pharmacies were found to improve pharmacy practice [50].”
From No prescription? No problem: drivers of non-prescribed sale of antibiotics among community drug retail outlets in low and middle income countries: a systematic review of qualitative studies (2021) · cites this paper as [50]
High business interest of CDROs often motivates CDRO owners to open CDROs primarily to serve commercial interests.
“The high business interest of CDROs often motivate CDRO owners to open CDROs so as to primarily serve their commercial interests [50].”
From No prescription? No problem: drivers of non-prescribed sale of antibiotics among community drug retail outlets in low and middle income countries: a systematic review of qualitative studies (2021) · cites this paper as [50]

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Background
Knowledge and dispensing practice of community pharmacists towards antipsychotic medicines in a Nigerian metropolitan city – a cross-sectional study
Olasupo, J. O., Taiwo, F., Aje, A. A., & Fakeye, T. O. (2023) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-10480-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Other studies carried out by Akin-yandenu et al. [22], Dameh et al. [26] and Levine [27] evaluated the accessibility of prescription-only medicines over-the-counter from community pharmacies.”
BackgroundResult
Assessment of Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Pharmacy Clients about Antibiotic Use and Misuse in Ogun State, Nigeria
Joda, A. E., Ezugwu, K. S., & Ekpeluchi, C. J. (2024) · Nigerian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.4314/njpr.v20i1.2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Context-Driven Collaborative Care: An Afro-Centred Perspective on Technology and Design Opportunities for Managing Type 2 Diabetes in Nigeria
Arueyingho, O., O’Kane, A. A., Marshall, P., & Aprioku, J. S. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3710951 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This is because, although pharmacists are the gatekeepers of medications/drugs, they may face challenges due to weak prescription regulations [20, 98] contributing to patients being torn between various care providers offering similar services.”
A STUDY EVALUATING APPROPRIATENESS OF UTILIZATION PATTERN OF ANTIMICROBIALS IN PATIENTS ADMITTED IN MEDICAL INTENSIVE CARE UNIT OF TERTIARY CARE TEACHING RURAL HOSPITAL
Alamchandani, R., & Khubchandani, P. R. (2015) · International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences · Cited by 4 · see citing works
DISPENSING ANTIBIOTICS WITHOUT PRESCRIPTION IN THE ARAB WORLD: A NARRATIVE REVIEW OF THE PREVALENCE, APPROPRIATENESS, FACILITATORS AND PREVENTIVE INTERVENTIONS
Alagha, H. Z. (2023) · Bulletin of Pharmaceutical Sciences Assiut · doi:10.21608/bfsa.2023.301131 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Assessment of the knowledge, attitude and practice of pharmacovigilance by pharmacists in two states in southeastern Nigeria
Udoye, J. A., Ozolua, R. I., Nwokike, J., & Nwokike, J. (2018) · Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.4314/tjpr.v17i5.25 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The Nigerian drug safety scenario is worse than what obtains in developed countries because of widespread irrational use of medicines [7,8].”
Background
What medicines do households keep in their cabinets? Understanding the possession and use of medicines at home and the role of health insurance in Nigeria
Shobiye, H. O., Bolarinwa, O. A., Fasiku, M. M., Akande, T. M., & Janssens, W. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247591 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Having medicines at home is linked with irrational use and misuse [1, 16, 17], which increases the risk of adverse effects [18, 19], especially when patients consume medicines without an adequate understanding of the active ingredients and clinical purpose [16].”
Background
Global Availability and Use of Over the Counter Antibiotics (OTCA): A Systematic Literature Review
Aceijas, C., & Selvaraj, D. H. (2019) · Acta Scientific Dental Scienecs · doi:10.31080/asds.2019.03.0628 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Antimicrobial use related problems and determinants in surgical ward of Ethiopian tertiary hospital
Niriayo, Y. L., Ayalneh, M., Demoz, G. T., Tesfay, N., & Gidey, K. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296284 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE (ABR) AND COMMUNITY PHARMACIST: A REVIEW
DENNY, D. C., & KARAN, S. (2021) · Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research · doi:10.22159/ajpcr.2021.v14i9.42018 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Knowledge, practices, and training outcomes regarding antimicrobial stewardship among Patent Medicine Vendors in Abia State-Nigeria
Eguzo, K. N., Onodugo, C., Akpanudo, U., Egharevba, P., Onwueyi, N., Oluoha, C., Ndukwe, P. E., Nnah, K., & Nwokocha, O. (2021) · Ibom Medical Journal · doi:10.61386/imj.v14i2.63 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Prevalence, Predictors of Drug and Substance Use, Their Psychosocial and Academic Effects on Secondary School Students in North-Eastern Nigeria: A Review
Nyameh, C. N. (2023) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2023.1112033 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Blind Helicobacter pylori Treatment in Dyspeptics in a High Prevalence Area
Gashau, W., & Adamu, A. S. (2020) · International Journal of Current Research and Review · doi:10.31782/ijcrr.2020.12041 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Comparative analysis of the unregulated sale of antimicrobial prescription medication by drug retailers before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Abuja, Nigeria
Makanjuola, R. O., Bello, A., Sadiq, F. U., Ishaleku, D., Oduwole, H. K., & Taylor-Robinson, A. W. (2021) · Microbes and Infectious Diseases /Microbes and Infectious Diseases · doi:10.21608/mid.2021.71677.1142 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Empowering Thai community pharmacists in combating antimicrobial resistance: Qualitative insight and sentiment analysis
Netthong, R., Donsamak, S., John, D., Kane, R., & Armani, K. (2024) · Exploratory Research in Clinical and Social Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.rcsop.2024.100535 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evaluation of rational use of medicines in public healthcare facilities
Valoyi, V. (2020) · University of the Western Cape Electronic Theses and Dissertations Repository (University of the Western Cape) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Retrospective Antibiotic Prescription Pattern in Public Hospitals in Nasarawa State, Nigeria
Ngwai, Y. B., Nkene, I. H., Abimiku, R. H., & Envuladu, E. Y. (2020) · World Journal of Innovative Research · doi:10.31871/wjir.8.4.42 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Automedicação em comunidades ribeirinhas na região do Médio Solimões Amazonas
Gama, A. S. M. (2017) · doi:10.11606/t.7.2017.tde-17052017-130436 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Antibiotic Use in Humans in Nigeria and Its Potential Contribution to Rising Antimicrobial ResistancePreprint
Egwuenu, A. J., Olayinka, A., Olayinka, B. O., Apeji, Y., Abayomi, O., Ogunniyi, B., Omotayo, H., Obasanya, J., Aboderin, O. A., Okeke, I. N., et al. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/2lel8v · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Irrational use of antibiotics with representation of antimicrobial resistance patterns in Sudan: a narrative review
Abdulgader, N. E. A., Galil, R. K. A., Elnour, S. Y. M. N. S., Elhusain, T. F. F., Osman, T. M. A., Elawad, M. N. A., Mirghani, I. M. S. I., Abdalrahman, I. B., & Elbager, S. G. (2021) · The EuroBiotech Journal · doi:10.2478/ebtj-2021-0007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Akinyandenu O, Akinyandenu A. Irrational use and non-prescription sale of antibiotics in Nigeria: A need for change.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Knowledge, Practices and Attitude of Community Pharmacists and Patent Medicine Vendors towards Use and Sales of Dexamethasone in Southwest Nigeria
Saka, S. A., Odusanya, O. O., & Ojieabu, A. W. (2016)
Intercultural Challenges to Consider When Designing Pharmaceutical and Behavioral Interventions in Health Services Research
Tuck, C. Z., Beyene, K. A., Boaitey, K. P., & Chan, A. H. Y. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50247-8_111-1
Intercultural Challenges to Consider When Designing Pharmaceutical and Behavioral Interventions in Health Services Research
Tuck, C. Z., Beyene, K. A., Boaitey, K. P., & Chan, A. H. Y. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64477-2_111
Pharmacy practices and services in Myanmar: How stakeholders perceived and expect them?
Dar, S. T., Kapol, N., Krichanchai, S., & Poompruek, P. (2023) · Science, Engineering and Health Studies · doi:10.69598/sehs.17.23050011
A Systematic Review of Antibiotic Use in Humans in Nigeria and Its Potential Contribution to Rising Antimicrobial ResistancePreprint
Egwuenu, A. J., Olayinka, A., Olayinka, B. O., Apeji, Y. E., Abayomi, O., Ogunniyi, B., Omotayo, H., Obasanya, J., Aboderin, O. A., Okeke, I. N., et al. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/2lel8v.4
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Egwuenu, A. J., Olayinka, A., Olayinka, B. O., Apeji, Y. E., Abayomi, O., Ogunniyi, B., Omotayo, H., Obasanya, J., Aboderin, O. A., Okeke, I. N., et al. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/2lel8v.3
A Systematic Review of Antibiotic Use in Humans in Nigeria and its Potential Contribution to Rising Antimicrobial ResistancePreprint
Egwuenu, A. J., Olayinka, A., Olayinka, B. O., Apeji, Y. E., Abayomi, O., Ogunniyi, B., Omotayo, H., Obasanya, J., Aboderin, O. A., Okeke, I. N., et al. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/2lel8v.2
Knowledge and usage patterns of clotrimazole vaginal cream and tablet amongst females: a cross-sectional study
Adigwe, O. P., Onavbavba, G., & Okeke, C. F. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1484238
Additional file 1 of Knowledge and dispensing practice of community pharmacists towards antipsychotic medicines in a Nigerian metropolitan city – a cross-sectional study
Olasupo, J. O., Taiwo, F., Aje, A. A., & Fakeye, T. O. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24892858
Prevalence and factors influencing self-medication practices in a semi-urban population in south-west Nigeria
Ilomuanya, C. S., Isere, V. I., Irokosu, J. P., Izang, R. P., Magaji, M., Musa, E. J., & Ebire, O. (2026) · Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2026.102365 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

A Systematic Review of Antibiotic Use in Humans in Nigeria and Its Potential Contribution to Rising Antimicrobial ResistancePreprint
Egwuenu, A. J., Olayinka, A., Olayinka, B. O., Apeji, Y., Abayomi, O., Ogunniyi, B., Omotayo, H., Obasanya, J., Aboderin, O. A., Okeke, I. N., et al. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/2lel8v · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evaluation of use of antibiotic without prescription among young adults
Oyetunde, Olubukola, O. A., Olugbake, Olugbake, O. A., Famudehin, & Kehinde, F. O. (2010) · African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology · doi:10.5897/ajpp.9000154 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
ACCESSIBILITY AND USE OF ANTIBIOTICS AMONG PATIENTS VISITING COMMUNITY PHARMACIES IN BENIN CITY, NIGERIA
Aika, I. N., Efe, A. E., & Joshua, O. (2021) · African Journal of Health Safety and Environment · doi:10.52417/ajhse.v2i2.170 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
PRACTICE OF SELF - MEDICATION WITH ANTIBIOTICS AMONG BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCE STUDENTS OF A NIGERIAN TERTIARY INSTITUTION
Moke, E. G., Umukoro, E. K., Edje, K. E., & Udele, D. (2019) · International Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.21474/ijar01/10094 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Knowledge and practices of community pharmacists towards non-prescription dispensing of antibiotics in Northern Nigeria
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Authors: Faculty of Health, S. A. S., Akinyandenu, O., Akinyandenu, A., & Department of Pharmacology, C. O. M.
Venue: Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research
Publisher: BioMed Research Publishers
Published: 2014-04-25
Volume: 3
Issue: 2
Pages: 251-257
ISSN: 2320-4818 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.31254/jsir.2014.3222
OpenAlex: W2184083532
Cited by: 65
References: 42
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 1
FWCI: 2.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology › Antibiotic Use and Resistance
Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmacy and Medical Practices
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Pharmaceutical Quality and Counterfeiting
Keywords: inappropriate antibiotic use, self-medication, community pharmacists, antibiotic resistance, adverse drug reactions, rational drug use, Nigeria

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Irrational use and non-prescription sale of antibiotics in Nigeria: A need for change

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