The DOI matches its Crossref record; 174 of the 174 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The brain’s best friend: microglial neurotoxicity revisited
Open accessAbstract
One long standing aspect of microglia biology was never questioned; their involvement in brain disease. Based on morphological changes (retracted processes and amoeboid shape) that inevitably occur in these cells in case of damage in the central nervous system, microglia in the diseased brain were called "activated." Because "activated" microglia were always found in direct neighborhood to dead or dying neuron, and since it is known now for more than 20 years that cultured microglia release numerous factors that are able to kill neurons, microglia "activation" was often seen as a neurotoxic process. From an evolutionary point of view, however, it is difficult to understand why an important, mostly post-mitotic and highly vulnerable organ like the brain would host numerous potential killers. This review is aimed to critically reconsider the term microglia neurotoxicity and to discuss experimental problems around microglia biology, that often have led to the conclusion that microglia are neurotoxic cells.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Activated microglia also support neuronal survival and function by engulfing pathogens, cellular debris, or other neurotoxic entities and can synthesize various neurotrophic factors to promote tissue maintenance and repair (63, 64). However, the excessive or sustained activation of microglial cells (such as in chronic neurodegenerative diseases) usually produces significant inflammatory collateral”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [63]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation
Mosser, D. M., & Edwards, J. P. (2008) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2448 · Cited by 9,144
Alternative activation of macrophages
Gordon, S. (2003) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri978 · Cited by 6,189
Resting microglial cells are highly dynamic surveillants of brain parenchyma in vivo
Nimmerjahn, A., Kirchhoff, F., & Helmchen, F. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1110647 · Cited by 5,827
Fate Mapping Analysis Reveals That Adult Microglia Derive from Primitive Macrophages
Ginhoux, F., Greter, M., Leboeuf, M., Nandi, S., See, P., Gokhan, S., Mehler, M. F., Conway, S. J., Ng, L. G., Stanley, E. R., et al. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1194637 · Cited by 5,175
Synaptic Pruning by Microglia Is Necessary for Normal Brain Development
Paolicelli, R. C., Bolasco, G., Pagani, F., Maggi, L., Scianni, M., Panzanelli, P., Giustetto, M., Ferreira, T. A., Guiducci, E., Dumas, L., et al. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1202529 · Cited by 4,244
Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: uncovering the molecular mechanisms
Block, M. L., Zecca, L., & Hong, J.-S. (2007) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2038 · Cited by 4,110
Microglia Sculpt Postnatal Neural Circuits in an Activity and Complement-Dependent Manner
Schafer, D. P., Lehrman, E. K., Kautzman, A. G., Koyama, R., Mardinly, A. R., Yamasaki, R., Ransohoff, R. M., Greenberg, M. E., Barres, B. A., & Stevens, B. (2012) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.03.026 · Cited by 4,089 · cited 2×
““fncel-07-00071” — 2013/5/20 — 11:49 — page 1 — #1 REVIEW ARTICLE published: 16 May 2013 doi: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00071 The brain’s best friend: microglial neurotoxicity revisited”
BackgroundInfluentialMicroglia: Active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain
Hanisch, U.-K., & Kettenmann, H. (2007) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1997 · Cited by 3,676
Kettenmann, H., Hanisch, U.-K., Noda, M., & Verkhratsky, A. (2011) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00011.2010 · Cited by 3,547
Fate Mapping Reveals Origins and Dynamics of Monocytes and Tissue Macrophages under Homeostasis
Yona, S., Kim, K.-W., Wolf, Y., Mildner, A., Varol, D., Breker, M., Strauss-Ayali, D., Viukov, S., Guilliams, M., Misharin, A., et al. (2013) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2012.12.001 · Cited by 3,245
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–126 of 126
Analysis of Signaling Mechanisms Regulating Microglial Process Movement
Kyrargyri, V., Attwell, D., Jolivet, R., & Madry, C. (2019) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9658-2_14 · Cited by 8
General Physiology and Pathophysiology of Microglia During Neuroinflammation
Patro, I. K., Nagayach, A., Sinha, S., & Patro, N. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1711-7_2 · Cited by 8
Carrillo, G. L., Su, J., Cawley, M. L., Wei, D., Gill, S. K., Blader, I. J., & Fox, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15770 · Cited by 8
Microglia in the Physiology and Pathology of Brain
Nagayach, A., Patro, N., & Patro, I. K. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences India Section B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40011-015-0585-y · Cited by 6
Morera, H., Dave, P., Kolinko, Y., Alahmari, S. S., Anderson, A., Denham, G., Davis, C., Riaño, J. C., Goldgof, D. B., Hall, L., et al. (2024) · Neurotoxicology and Teratology · doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2024.107336 · Cited by 5
Never-resting microglia: physiological roles in the healthy brain and pathological implications
(2015) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-88919-369-1 · Cited by 4
Effect of Exercise on Neurodegeneration in Neurological Disorders
Farooqui, A. A. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04111-7_5 · Cited by 3
Neuroprotection Versus Neurotoxicity
Biber, K. P. H., & Block, M. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1429-6_6 · Cited by 3
Berki, P., Cserép, C., Pósfai, B., Szabadits, E., Környei, Z., Kellermayer, A., Nyerges, M., Wei, X., Módy, I., Araki, K., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.04.12.487998 · Cited by 3
Kim, G. M., Lee, C., & Jang, T. C. (2021) · Toxicology Research · doi:10.1093/toxres/tfab115 · Cited by 2
Unraveling the enigma: housekeeping gene Ugt1a7c as a universal biomarker for microglia
Kim, W., Kim, M.-J., & Kim, B. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1364201 · Cited by 3
Contribution of Receptors, Transcription Factors, and Genes in the Induction of Neuroinflammation
Farooqui, A. A. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04111-7_4 · Cited by 1
Neuroprotection: A New Therapeutic Approach of Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis
Espinosa‐Parrilla, J. F., Pugliese, M., Mahy, N., & Rodríguez, M. J. (2016) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/63730 · Cited by 1
BIOQUÍMICA MITOCONDRIAL E ESTRESSE OXIDATIVO NO TRANSTORNO BIPOLAR: NOVOS HORIZONTES
Cyrino, L. A. R., de Lima, D. D., Ullmann, O. M., Maia, T. P., & Sardo, A. C. (2020) · Revista Contexto & Saúde · doi:10.21527/2176-7114.2020.39.6-18 · Cited by 1
Oxytocine et neuroprotection en période néonatale : évidences conceptuelles et précliniques
Baud, O., & Knoop, M. S. (2023) · Gynécologie Obstétrique Fertilité & Sénologie · doi:10.1016/j.gofs.2023.12.005 · Cited by 1
The Complexity of the Innate Immune System Activation in Stroke Pathogenesis
Cuartero, M. I., Lizasoaín, I., Moro, M. Á., & Ballesteros, I. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118732748.ch5
Zhao, J., Bernstock, J. D., Wang, S., Ye, D. G., Spatz, M., Johnson, K. R., Li, X., Li, X., & Hallenbeck, J. M. (2016) · Matters · doi:10.19185/matters.201602000017
Loniewska, M. M. (2013) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Nagayach, A., & Patro, I. K. (2015)
Microglial reprogramming by Hv1 antagonism provides protection from inflammatory neurotoxicityPreprint
Hernández-Espinosa, D. R., Gale, J. R., Scrabis, M. G., & Aizenman, E. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1527316/v1
Traumatic brain injury induced microglial and Caspase3 activation in the retinaPreprint
Kovács‐Öller, T., Zempléni, R., Balogh, B., Szarka, G., Fazekas, B., Tengölics, Á. J., Amrein, K., Czeiter, E., Hernádi, I., Büki, A., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.30.522345
Ocytocine : une nouvelle cible de neuroprotection ?
Baud, O., Knoop, M. S., Jacquens, A., & Possovre, M.-L. (2022) · Biologie Aujourd hui · doi:10.1051/jbio/2022012
Double-edge sword: Positive and negative effects of inflammation on axonal regeneration
Venanzi, A. W., & Hackam, A. S. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15580-2.00007-2
Vautheny, A. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/1812d71aze8d9z48d6z87d1z5a23a4e81953
Irie, M., Ishino, F., & Kaneko‐Ishino, T. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27146322
Metadata
- Authors
- Hellwig, S., Heinrich, A., & Biber, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Freiburg (DE)
- University Medical Center Groningen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Biber, Knut
- Venue
- Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 71-71
- ISSN
- 1662-5102 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3655268
- OpenAlex
- W2030448361
- Cited by
- 126
- References
- 173
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 9.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- FreiDok plus (Universitätsbibliothek Freiburg) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (BI 668/2-2, BI 668/5-1, DFG BI 668/5-1)
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- microglia, microglial neurotoxicity, microglial activation, microglial morphology, amoeboid microglia, neuroinflammation, brain disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
