Fate Mapping Analysis Reveals That Adult Microglia Derive from Primitive Macrophages
Open accessAbstract
Primitive Origins for Microglia: Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system and are associated with neurodegeneration and brain inflammatory diseases. Although the developmental origins of other tissue macrophage populations are well established, the origins of microglia remain controversial. Ginhoux et al. (p. 841 , published online 21 October) used in vivo lineage tracing studies to show that microglia arise early in mouse development and derive from primitive macrophages in the yolk sac. This is in contrast to other cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system, which arise later in development from a distinct progenitor population.
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CD11b+ CD45+ cells are absent from non-engrafted CSF1R knockout brains.
“Two weeks after injection, CSF1R knockout brains had been partially repopulated with CD11b+ CD45+ cells (Fig. S7B), which are absent from non-engrafted brains (Ginhoux et al., 2010).”
From Diverse Requirements for Microglial Survival, Specification, and Function Revealed by Defined-Medium Cultures (2017) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
The CSF-1R results passage (labelled Abstract; page unavailable) says microglia are largely absent throughout life in CSF-1R–deficient mice and absent in adults lacking the receptor. An earlier passage identifies developing-brain myeloid cells by CD11b and CD45, but the paper does not establish that all CD11b+ CD45+ cells are absent from non-engrafted knockout brains. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicroglia originate from the yolk sac during early embryonic development, whereas peripheral macrophages originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
“Importantly, microglia originate from the yolk sac during early embryonic development, whereas peripheral macrophages originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow (19).”
From The role of microglia in multiple sclerosis: implications for treatment with Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
The paper’s Abstract and developmental discussion support a yolk-sac origin for microglia from primitive myeloid progenitors early in mouse embryogenesis. The developmental discussion says adult tissue macrophages are *thought* to derive from bone-marrow monocytes; it does not establish that peripheral macrophages generally originate from bone-marrow hematopoietic stem cells. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicroglia are uniformly CX3CR1+ from early embryonic time points through adulthood.
“microglia are uniformly CX3CR1+ from early embryonic time points through adulthood (Cardona et al., 2006; Ginhoux et al., 2010; Schulz et al., 2012)”
From Differential roles of microglia and monocytes in the inflamed central nervous system (2014) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
The passage on developmental markers (section labeled Abstract; page unavailable) identifies CX3CR1 as a microglial marker and reports CX3CR1-expressing myeloid cells in the developing brain from E9.5. It does not establish that all microglia express CX3CR1 uniformly at every stage through adulthood. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicroglia arise from yolk sac erythromyeloid precursors and migrate into the brain parenchyma during early development.
“It is believed that microglia arise from yolk sac erythromyeloid precursors and migrate into the brain parenchyma during early development [43,44,45].”
From The Cuprizone Model: Dos and Do Nots (2020) · cites this paper as [44]
The paper reports that adult microglia derive from primitive myeloid progenitors in the yolk sac and that Runx1+ progenitors migrate into the developing brain between E8.5 and E9.5 (Abstract; page unavailable). It does not identify those progenitors specifically as erythromyeloid precursors, so that part of the claim is more specific than the source supports. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicroglia share much of their genetic make-up, complement of proteins, and function, with other immune cells, particularly macrophages.
“Microglia share much of their genetic make-up, complement of proteins, and function, with other immune cells, particularly macrophages [129]”
From TREM2/PLCγ2 signalling in immune cells: function, structural insight, and potential therapeutic modulation (2021) · cites this paper as [129]
The paper’s Abstract describes microglia as resident macrophages of the CNS, and the body text reports that embryonic microglia resemble yolk sac macrophages in phenotype and express similar amounts of CSF-1R. These passages support a macrophage relationship and some shared characteristics, but they do not establish the claimed broad similarity in genetic make-up, protein complement, and function across other immune cells. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Aging, vascular dysfunction, and chronic neuroinflammation compromise blood-brain barrier integrity, leading to increased trafficking of peripheral immune cells and microglial replacement.
“aging, vascular dysfunction, and chronic neuroinflammation are known to compromise the integrity of the blood–brain barrier. This can lead to increased trafficking of peripheral immune cells as well as the above-mentioned microglial replacement of resident microglia by peripheral monocytes [24,36].”
From Clonal Hematopoiesis of Indeterminate Potential as an Emerging Interdisciplinary Risk Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease: Current Evidence and Future Directions (2026) · cites this paper as [36]
The paper’s results (section labeled Abstract; page unavailable) report some donor-derived microglia in irradiated bone-marrow chimeras and suggest that radiation-induced brain injury enables recruitment of bone-marrow-derived cells. They do not establish that aging, vascular dysfunction, or chronic neuroinflammation compromise the blood–brain barrier or cause peripheral monocytes to replace resident microglia. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicroglia originate from primitive macrophage progenitors in the yolk sac, infiltrate the developing brain, and clonally expand.
“Microglia originate from primitive macrophage (M F ) progenitors that arise in the yolk sac (YS), infiltrate the developing brain and clonally expand 2,3 .”
From Clonal hematopoiesis-associated motoric deficits caused by monocyte-derived microglia accumulating in aging mice (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The indexed passages (section labeled Abstract; no page supplied) trace adult microglia to primitive yolk-sac progenitors and describe their infiltration of the developing brain. They also report that embryonic microglia are highly proliferative, but do not establish that they expand clonally. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMacrophage progenitors develop from the primitive ectoderm of the yolk sac and give rise to tissue macrophages that do not have a monocytic progenitor.
“Our findings are consistent with reports that macrophage progenitors develop from the primitive ectoderm of the yolk sac4 and give rise to tissue macrophages that do not have a monocytic progenitor16,17.”
From Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia (2014) · cites this paper as [4]
The paper’s Abstract reports that adult microglia derive from primitive myeloid progenitors and that postnatal hematopoietic progenitors do not significantly contribute to their maintenance. This supports the claim for microglia, but not for tissue macrophages generally; the paper also does not identify the yolk sac’s primitive ectoderm as their origin. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCSF1R knockout animals lack microglia.
“To provide this niche, we used CSF1R knockout animals, which lack microglia (Ginhoux et al., 2010) (schematic in Fig. 7A).”
From Diverse Requirements for Microglial Survival, Specification, and Function Revealed by Defined-Medium Cultures (2017) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
In mice, adult microglia originate from yolk-sac-derived primitive macrophages that colonize the developing brain rudiment during early embryogenesis.
“In mice, fate-mapping methods revealed that, unlike other glia cells with neuroectoderm origin, microglia in adults originate from yolk-sac (YS)-derived primitive macrophages, which colonize the developing brain rudiment during early embryogenesis (Ginhoux et al., 2010; Schulz et al., 2012).”
From Pu.1/Spi1 dosage controls the turnover and maintenance of microglia in zebrafish and mammals (2025) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
Microglia are the primary resident immune cells of the CNS parenchyma and are seeded during development from mesodermal progenitors.
“Microglia are the primary resident immune cells of the CNS parenchyma and are seeded during development from mesodermal progenitors”
From Cross-Species Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Divergence of the Primate Microglia Program (2019) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
Microglia arise from KIT+ erythromyeloid precursors that seed the brain from the yolk sac at embryonic day 9.5 in the mouse.
“These cells arise from uncommitted KIT+ erythromyeloid precursors [181, 316], which seed the brain from the yolk sac at embryonic day 9.5 in the mouse [126], well before other glial cells and the formation of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) [130, 181].”
From Microglia and monocytes in inflammatory CNS disease: integrating phenotype and function (2022) · cites this paper as [126]
Microglia derive from yolk-sac progenitors during embryogenesis.
“Microglia and monocytes are ontogenetically distinct: microglia derive from yolk-sac progenitors during embryogenesis (Ginhoux et al., 2010; Schulz et al., 2012)”
From Differential roles of microglia and monocytes in the inflamed central nervous system (2014) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
IL-34 is a newly identified ligand for CSF-1R, and it is reported to support maintenance of microglia.
“In addition, IL-34 is newly identified ligand for CSF-1R, and it is reported to support maintenance of microglia [14].”
From Loss of homeostatic microglial phenotype in CSF1R-related Leukoencephalopathy (2020) · cites this paper as [14]
Peripheral immune cells may replace microglial populations, though this is controversial.
“Peripheral immune cells may also replace microglial populations,5,23,30–32 though this is controversial.”
From TET2-mutant myeloid cells mitigate Alzheimer’s disease progression via CNS infiltration and enhanced phagocytosis in mice (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
Microglia derive from primitive, yolk sac macrophages that migrate into the developing brain.
“Our own work (Buchrieser et al., 2017) and that of others (Hoeffel et al., 2015) indicates that this protocol produces MYB-independent myeloid cells, recapitulating an embryonic ontogeny, and lineage-tracking studies in mouse have demonstrated that microglia derive from primitive, yolk sac macrophages that migrate into the developing brain (Ginhoux et al., 2010, Ginhoux et al., 2013).”
From A highly efficient human pluripotent stem cell microglia model displays a neuronal-co-culture-specific expression profile and inflammatory response (2017) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
Bone marrow-derived myeloid precursors do not contribute to the microglia pool.
“Bone marrow–derived myeloid precursors do not contribute to the microglia pool.”
From Microglia Function in the Central Nervous System During Health and Neurodegeneration (2017) · cites this paper as [1]
Microglia originate from early myeloid progenitors in the embryonic yolk sac that migrate into the developing neural tube, proliferate, colonize the entire parenchyma, and persist throughout life by slow division.
“Fate-mapping studies have demonstrated that microglia originate from early myeloid progenitors in the embryonic yolk sac that migrate into the developing neural tube, where they proliferate, colonize the entire parenchyma, and subsist throughout the life span of the organism by slow division (1, 2).”
From Microglia Function in the Central Nervous System During Health and Neurodegeneration (2017) · cites this paper as [1]
Normal blood circulation is required for YS macrophage seeding of the CNS.
“Normal blood circulation is required for YS macrophage seeding of the CNS.”
From Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets (2023) · cites this paper as [42]
The recruitment of YS progenitors into the brain is mediated by blood circulation.
“This observation supports the idea that the recruitment of YS progenitors into the brain is mediated by blood circulation.”
From Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets (2023) · cites this paper as [42]
Microglia are derived from yolk sac (YS) erythromyeloid precursors (EMPs).
“it is now well-established that microglia are derived from yolk sac (YS) erythromyeloid precursors (EMPs).”
From Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets (2023) · cites this paper as [42]
Microglia originate from mesodermal progenitors that colonize the CNS early and arise from the yolk sac.
“The origin of microglia has now been clearly defined and shown to relate to the early colonization of the CNS by mesodermal progenitors6 that arise from the yolk sac7,8”
From Microglial signatures and their role in health and disease (2018) · cites this paper as [8]
CSF1 acting via CSF1R is important for microglial development, and IL-34 promotes tissue-specific signalling required for differentiation of skin myeloid cells and CNS microglia.
“the cytokine CSF1, acting via its receptor CSF1R, is important for microglial development8.”
From Microglial signatures and their role in health and disease (2018) · cites this paper as [8]
Microglia arise from yolk sac-derived precursors that populate the brain during early development.
“Microglia arise from yolk sac-derived precursors that populate the brain during early development21.”
From Microglia protect against brain injury and their selective elimination dysregulates neuronal network activity after stroke (2016) · cites this paper as [21]
Several groups have tried different culture conditions with cytokines such as CSF1, GM-CSF, TGFβ, and IL-34 to preserve homeostatic microglia signature and ramified morphology in vitro.
“Several groups have attempted different cell culture conditions to maintain homeostatic microglia signature and ramified morphology In vitro using a variety of cytokines, such as CSF1, GM-CSF, TGFβ, and IL-34 [73-76].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [73]
Microglia-like cells matching acutely isolated microglial signatures and following non-monocytic yolk sac ontogeny had not been reported from human pluripotent cells.
“However, generation of microglia-like cells matching the recently identified signatures of acutely isolated microglia 10,11, and following their non-monocytic yolk sac ontogeny 4, has not been reported from pluripotent human cells.”
From Efficient derivation of microglia-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
Microglia leave the yolk sac as erythromyeloid precursors or primitive macrophages before peripheral hematopoiesis begins.
“They emigrate as erythromyeloid precursors or primitive macrophages from the yolk sac, before further hematopoiesis takes place in the periphery.”
From Efficient derivation of microglia-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
Mouse genetic lineage tracing indicates that microglia colonize the developing neural tube shortly before the blood-brain barrier closes.
“recent genetic lineage tracing in the mouse determined that microglia take up residence in the developing neural tube shortly before closure of the blood-brain barrier 4.”
From Efficient derivation of microglia-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
Microglia originate from yolk sac erythromyeloid progenitors generated during primitive hematopoiesis.
“Elegant lineage tracing studies show that microglia originate from yolk sac erythromyeloid progenitors (EMP) generated during primitive hematopoiesis (Ginhoux et al., 2010; Kierdorf et al., 2013; Schulz et al., 2012).”
From iPSC-derived human microglia-like cells to study neurological diseases (2017) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
TF network analysis identified eleven TFs upregulated in PS19 mice implicated in inflammatory responses (Stat1, Stat3, Stat5a, Stat5b, Nfkb1, Nfe2l2, Fli1), microglia proliferation/differentiation (Irf8, Spi1, Runx1), and astrocyte maturation/neurogenesis (Pax6).
“We identified eleven TFs upregulated in PS19 mice that are implicated in mediating the inflammatory responses (Stat1, Stat3, Stat5a, Stat5b, Nfkb1, Nfe2l2, Fli1), microglia proliferation and differentiation (Irf8, Spi1, Runx1), and astrocyte maturation and neurogenesis (Pax6) (Ginhoux et al., 2010; Kierdorf et al., 2013; Zamanian et al., 2012; Zusso et al., 2012).”
From Complement C3aR Inactivation Attenuates Tau Pathology and Reverses an Immune Network Deregulated in Tauopathy Models and Alzheimer’s Disease (2018) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
Microglia are derived from embryonic yolk sac precursors and maintain their CNS population via local self-renewal, with little contribution from bone marrow-derived monocytes.
“They are derived from embryonic yolk sac (YS) precursors and maintain their CNS population via local self-renewal, with little contribution from bone marrow-derived monocytes12,13.”
From Interplay between innate immunity and Alzheimer disease: APOE and TREM2 in the spotlight (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
Studies in mice indicate that microglia are derived from yolk sac progenitor cells that populate the brain early in development.
“Studies in mice indicate that microglia are derived from yolk sac progenitor cells that populate the brain early in development (18, 19).”
From An environment-dependent transcriptional network specifies human microglia identity (2017) · cites this paper as [18]
In mice, two waves of embryonic macrophages are produced in the yolk sac blood islands at embryonic day 7.5 and E8.25, and the first wave migrate into the developing brain and differentiate to microglia.
“In mice, two waves of embryonic macrophages are produced in the yolk sac blood islands at embryonic day 7.5 (E7.5) and E8.25, and the first wave migrate into the developing brain and differentiate to microglia (Ginhoux et al., 2010, Gomez Perdiguero et al., 2015, Hoeffel et al., 2015, Palis et al., 1999).”
From A highly efficient human pluripotent stem cell microglia model displays a neuronal-co-culture-specific expression profile and inflammatory response (2017) · cites this paper as Ginhoux et al., 2010
The microglial lineage is mainly regulated by CSFR1 and its ligand IL-34.
“This lineage is mainly regulated by CSFR14 and its ligand, IL-347.”
From Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia (2014) · cites this paper as [4]
Adult microglia derive from primitive macrophages in a Myb-independent manner via PU.1 and IRF8 dependent pathways.
“adult microglia derive from primitive macrophages4 in a Myb-independent manner5 via PU.1 and IRF8 dependent pathways6.”
From Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia (2014) · cites this paper as [4]
There is a resident pool of microglia that is separate from peripheral myeloid cells that infiltrate the nervous system.
“Thus, there is a resident pool of microglia that is separate from peripheral myeloid cells that infiltrate the nervous system.”
From Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia (2014) · cites this paper as [4]
In mice, microglia arise early during development from progenitors in the embryonic yolk sac.
“Subsequent reports showed that microglia arise early during development from progenitors in the embryonic yolk sac4,38,39.”
From Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia (2014) · cites this paper as [4]
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- Authors
- Ginhoux, F., Greter, M., Leboeuf, M., Nandi, S., See, P., Gokhan, S., Mehler, M. F., Conway, S. J., Ng, L. G., Stanley, E. R., Samokhvalov, I. M., & Merad, M.
- Affiliations
- Singapore Immunology Network (SG)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Department of Gene and Cell Medicine and the Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA.
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine (US)
- Institute for Brain Disorders and Neural Regeneration, Rose F. Kennedy Center for Research on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, and Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1410 Pelham Parkway South, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
- Indiana University Indianapolis (US)
- RIKEN (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Ginhoux, Florent
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2010-11-05
- Volume
- 330
- Issue
- 6005
- Pages
- 841-845
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC3719181
- OpenAlex
- W2148898943
- Cited by
- 5,175
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 286 · 2025: 360 · 2024: 447 · 2023: 369 · 2022: 443 · 2021: 483 · 2020: 425 · 2019: 382 · 2018: 363 · 2017: 328 · 2016: 279 · 2015: 279 · 2014: 271 · 2013: 219 · 2012: 137
- FWCI
- 87.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Institutes of Health (CA26504)
- RIKEN
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL086899, R01HL086899, R01HL060714)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066290, MH66290)
- National Cancer Institute (CA-32551, R01CA032551, R37CA026504, R01CA112100, CA26504, CA112100, R01CA026504)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI080884, R01AI080884)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NS38902, R01NS038902)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Multiple Sclerosis Research Studies
- Keywords
- myeloid progenitor cells, CSF-1, CSF-1 receptor, reticuloendothelial system, hematopoietic progenitor cells, lineage tracing, neuroinflammation, neurodegenerative diseases
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Cell Differentiation, Embryo, Mammalian, Female, Hematopoiesis, Hematopoietic Stem Cells, Homeostasis, Macrophages, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Yolk Sac, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor, Receptor, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor, Microglia, Cell Lineage, Myeloid Progenitor Cells, Cell Proliferation, Core Binding Factor Alpha 2 Subunit, Mice, Gene Knock-In Techniques
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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