Cited by 145Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsReligion, Spirituality, and PsychologyIndian and Buddhist Studies

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What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System

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Matko, Karin, Sedlmeier, Peter·2019·Frontiers in Psychology

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276PMC PMC6803504

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Abstract

Meditation is an umbrella term, which subsumes a huge number of diverse practices. It is still unclear how these practices can be classified in a reasonable way. Earlier proposals have struggled to do justice to the diversity of meditation techniques. To help in solving this issue, we used a novel bottom-up procedure to develop a comprehensive classification system for meditation techniques. In previous studies, we reduced 309 initially identified techniques to the 20 most popular ones. In the present study, 100 experienced meditators were asked to rate the similarity of the selected 20 techniques. Using multidimensional scaling, we found two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified: activation and amount of body orientation. These dimensions emphasize the role of embodied cognition in meditation. Within these two dimensions, seven main clusters emerged: mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement. We conclude there is no “meditation” as such, but there are rather different groups of techniques that might exert diverse effects. These groups call into question the common division into “focused attention” and “open-monitoring” practices. We propose a new embodied classification system and encourage researchers to evaluate this classification system through comparative studies.

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Authors: Matko, K., & Sedlmeier, P.
Affiliations: Chemnitz University of Technology (DE)
Corresponding author: Matko, Karin
ORCID: Matko, Karin
Sedlmeier, Peter
Venue: Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Published: 2019-10-15
Volume: 10
Pages: 2276-2276
ISSN: 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276
PMC: PMC6803504
OpenAlex: W2979561447
Cited by: 145
References: 74
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1
FWCI: 12.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Qucosa (Saxon State and University Library Dresden) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
Keywords: meditation, embodied cognition, body orientation, activation level, contemplation, mantra meditation, focused attention, experienced meditators

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What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System

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