Gender differences in artificial intelligence: the role of artificial intelligence anxiety
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Artificial intelligence (AI) is having a significant impact on people's lives. Despite the benefits associated with this technological advancement, there may be gender-related inequalities in accessing and using AI systems. The present study aimed to test gender differences in factors likely to influence AI adoption, in particular, the moderating role of gender in the relationship between AI anxiety and positive attitudes toward AI. Method: Participants were 335 adults (52.2% women; mean age = 29.96, SD = 13.88) who filled in an online self-report anonymous questionnaire. To test the hypotheses, both a MANOVA and a moderation model were adopted. Results: Results revealed significant gender differences in AI adoption dimensions, with women reporting higher AI anxiety, lower positive attitudes toward AI, lower use of AI, and lower perceived knowledge of AI. A significant negative relationship was found between AI anxiety and positive attitudes toward AI. An interaction between gender and AI anxiety was found: At low levels of anxiety, women showed lower levels of positive attitudes toward AI than men, while at high levels of AI anxiety, gender differences were less evident. Discussion: These findings suggest that AI anxiety works as a “gender differences leveler.” The present study contributes to expanding knowledge about gender differences in technology, which will underpin practical interventions for reducing the gender digital gap. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.
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Prior technology-acceptance research suggested that gender may shape how users evaluate new technologies, including the relative importance of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence.
“Prior technology-acceptance research suggested that gender may shape how users evaluate new technologies, including the relative importance of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence [121].”
From Advancing Undergraduate Student Mental Healthcare of Social Anxiety Disorder: Evaluating the Acceptance of AR-Assisted Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Through TAM-Based Constructs. (2026) · cites this paper as [121]
The Introduction (section 1.1; no page number provided) reports gender differences in attitudes toward technology and in perceptions of how useful or complex AI systems are. The copy does not address whether gender changes the relative importance of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence in technology acceptance. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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“6,7 Because CT surgery already exhibits significant gender disparities in workforce composition, remuneration, and leadership roles, such differences may further impact AI acceptance and gender inequity.”
More Talk Than Touch: Chinese Art Educators and the Overwhelming Discourse of AI in Higher Education
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“Regarding other demographic factors in our study, none of them predicted AI-HSB, while previous studies found that women and younger individuals had higher levels of AI adoption (Russo et al., 2025).”
Who cares about artificial intelligence? Human and artificial voices in audiobooks
Schwabe, A., Kosch, L., Stocker, G., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101068 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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InfluentialWomen in Science and Technology: Generative AI as a Tool for Gender Equality in STEM Education
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“Taken together, these findings suggest that the gender effect observed in our study may reflect not only a sociodemographic difference per se, but also unequal trajec - tories of familiarity, confidence, and risk framing in relation to GenAI (Russo et al. 2025).”
Cammà, C., Amenta, L., Battaglia, S., Celsa, C., Cirrincione, G., Contino, S., Corso, P. P., Dio, S. D., Maria, G. D., Enea, M., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861001 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“For example, [40] found that women reported higher AI anxiety and lower perceived AI knowledge and AI use in an Italian sample, whereas Asio and Sardina [6] reported that gender did not significantly moderate the relationship between AI self-competency and AI anxiety among higher education students…”
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Technology Adoption Frameworks in Agriculture: A Comparative and Contextual Analysis
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“Prior technology-acceptance research suggested that gender may shape how users evaluate new technologies, including the relative importance of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence [121].”
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Would You Let AI Be Your Boss? Turing and Weberian Thresholds in AI AcceptabilityPreprint
Lee, S. Y., Puranam, P., & Mai, K. M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5750102
AI-Powered academic search systems: An exploratory study from the perspective of academics in LIS
Ramzy, M., & Zakaria, M. S. (2025) · Information Development · doi:10.1177/02666669251403163
Kinoshita, S., Furukawa, S., Ikkatai, Y., & Yokoyama, H. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2596861
“…pointed out that women’s aversion to AI stems from fears that it will threaten their economic status by automating repetitive, routine tasks traditionally performed by women, as well as anxieties about complex technologies like AI due to low female participation in STEM fields (Russo et al., 2025).”
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Choosing your companion: How locus of control shapes responses to AI vs. real pets
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Revealing While Solving: Exploring the Strategy of Service-Oriented Self-Disclosure of AI Chatbots
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“Additionally, women may be more emotionally selective, hold higher standards for authenticity in relational contexts (Kislev, 2023) and report greater AI-related anxiety (Russo et al., 2025).”
How gender norms shape preference: the role of counter-stereotypes
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Teknolojik Spor Ürünleri Bağımlılığı ve Yapay Zeka Tutumu: Spor Bilimleri Öğrencilerinden Kanıtlar
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Gender perspectives: Artificial intelligence in academic practice
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Factors Associated with AI Use in a Norwegian Sample
Thorp, S. O., Rimol, L. M., Fleten, M. K., & Hoel, S. K. B. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16040537
“These disparities are not necessarily reducible to occupational exposure alone and may also reflect differences in confidence, anxiety, norms, and access to relevant training opportunities (Aldasoro et al., 2024; Chien & Kim, 2024; Conde-Ruiz et al., 2024; Rana et al., 2024; Russo et al., 2025).”
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Alexa, Make Me a Sandwich: The Function of Gender in the Burgeoning AI Industry (2016–2025)
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“This is consistent with Russo et al 28 who found that women experience significantly higher levels of anxiety regarding AI compared to men, which negatively affects their willingness to use these technologies.”
Effects of digital leadership on the attitudes of manager nurses toward AI: A cross-sectional study
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Online Learning Self-Efficacy, AI Anxiety, and Digital Well-Being in Engineering Students
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Women Worry, Men Adopt: How Gendered Perceptions Shape the Use of Generative AIPreprint
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Adigun, O. T. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-14031-y
“…that higher response obtained from male sign language interpret - ers can be linked to values attributed to dynamics, application, and use of artificial intelligence which have male dominance as found in the studies of Møgelvang et al. ( 2024 ), Otis et al. ( 2024 ), and Russo et al. ( 2025 ) (Fig.”
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I Want an Assistant: Generative AI, Women’s Leadership, and the Redistribution of Invisible Labor
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“Women also report higher GenAI anxiety, less positive attitudes toward GenAI, and lower perceived knowledge of AI systems, suggesting that adoption is shaped not only by access, but by the affective and interpretive conditions under which the technology is encountered [46].”
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Preservice Teachers' Artificial Intelligence Competence: A Network and Latent Profile Analyses
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“Research highlights significant differences in how males and females engage with AI-driven systems, influenced by factors such as anthropomorphic design, interaction styles, trust, and anxiety toward AI (Mahmood & Huang, 2024; Pelau et al., 2021; Russo et al., 2025).”
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What Do Canadians Think About Mental Health Clinicians Collaborating with AI?
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A study on the influencing factors of perceived artificial intelligence substitution risk
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“…their structurally disadvantaged position in the labor market, such as occupational segregation and a relatively higher proportion of informal employment (International Labour Organization, 2017; Nedelkoska & Quintini, 2018), may amplify sensitivity to sub-stitution risks (Russo et al., 2025).”
Whose Values? Demographic Influences on Perceptions of Conversational AI Value Alignment
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Gender effects on ChatGPT usage knowledge and adoption challenges among MBA students
Delina, G., Kumar, M., Bh, R., & Paul, G. R. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-01845-8
“Gender differences as a factor influencing knowledge, challenges and willingness to use/engage with ChatGPT Structural and socio-cultural inequalities create gendered barriers to AI knowledge and usage [45].”
- Authors
- Russo, C., Romano, L., Clemente, D., Iacovone, L., Gladwin, T. E., & Panno, A.
- Affiliations
- European University of Rome (IT)
- University of Chieti-Pescara (IT)
- Institute for Globally Distributed Open Research and Education (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Russo, Claudia
- Panno, Angelo
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2025-05-06
- Volume
- 16
- Pages
- 1559457-1559457
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12089128
- OpenAlex
- W4410133492
- Cited by
- 126
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 32
- FWCI
- 227.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Technology in Education
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Technology Adoption and User Behaviour
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- AI anxiety, gender differences, attitudes toward AI, artificial intelligence adoption, technology acceptance, gender digital divide, moderating effect of gender
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