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Virtual reality and collaborative learning: a systematic literature review
Open accessAbstract
Background: While research on Virtual Reality’s potential for education continues to advance, research on its support for Collaborative Learning is small in scope. With remote collaboration and distance learning becoming increasingly relevant for education (especially since the COVID-19 pandemic), an understanding of Virtual Reality’s potential for Collaborative Learning is of importance. To establish how this immersive technology can support and enhance collaboration between learners, this systematic literature review analyses scientific research on Virtual Reality for Collaborative Learning with the intention to identify 1) skills and competences trained, 2) domains and disciplines addressed, 3) systems used and 4) empirical knowledge established. Method: Two scientific databases—Scopus and Web of Science—were used for this review. Following the PRISMA method, a total of 139 articles were analyzed. Reliability of this selection process was assessed using five additional coders. A taxonomy was used to classify these articles. Another coder was used to assess the reliability of the primary coder before this taxonomy was applied to the selected articles Results: Based on the literature reviewed, skills and competences developed are divided into five categories. Educational fields and domains seem interested in Virtual Reality for Collaborative Learning because of a need for innovation, communities and remote socialization and collaboration between learners. Systems primarily use monitor-based Virtual Reality and mouse-and-keyboard controls. A general optimism is visible regarding the use of Virtual Reality to support and enhance Collaborative Learning Conclusion: Five distinct affordances of Virtual Reality for Collaborative Learning are identified: it 1) is an efficient tool to engage and motivate learners, 2) supports distance learning and remote collaboration, 3) provides multi- and interdisciplinary spaces for both learning and collaborating, 4) helps develop social skills and 5) suits Collaborative Learning-related paradigms and approaches. Overall, the reviewed literature suggests Virtual Reality to be an effective tool for the support and enhancement of Collaborative Learning, though further research is necessary to establish pedagogies.
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“Van de Meer et al.'s [31] review identified that out of 139 studies investigating virtual reality collaborative learning (VRCL) in education, most articles focused on tertiary education (64.0%). Primary education accounted for 10.8%, while 5.0% discussed VRCL in secondary education and in specific fields. Multidisciplinary studies covered only 8.6% of the articles.”
From A Framework for Participatory Creation of Digital Futures: A Longitudinal Study on Enhancing Media Literacy and Inclusion in K-12 Through Virtual Reality (2025) · cites this paper as [31]
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“In addition, existing studies explore VR affordances mainly in higher education and training, with a limited number of studies in K-12 education [13,31].”
From A Framework for Participatory Creation of Digital Futures: A Longitudinal Study on Enhancing Media Literacy and Inclusion in K-12 Through Virtual Reality (2025) · cites this paper as [31]
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Immersive virtual reality in higher education: a systematic review of the scientific literature
Stracke, C. M., Bothe, P., Adler, S., Heller, E. S., Deuchler, J., Pomino, J., & Wölfel, M. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01136-x · Cited by 139
Mallek, F., Mazhar, T., Shah, S. F. A., Ghadi, Y. Y., & Hamam, H. (2024) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.2000 · Cited by 119
Virtual vs. traditional learning in higher education: A systematic review of comparative studies
Santilli, T., Ceccacci, S., Mengoni, M., & Giaconi, C. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105214 · Cited by 109
Designing for collaborative learning in immersive virtual reality: a systematic literature review
Paulsen, L., Dau, S., & Davidsen, J. (2024) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-024-00975-4 · Cited by 100
Shah, S. F. A., Mazhar, T., Shahzad, T., Khan, M. A., Ghadi, Y. Y., & Hamam, H. (2024) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101207 · Cited by 59
Metadata
- Authors
- van der Meer, N., van der Werf, V., Brinkman, W.-P., & Specht, M.
- Affiliations
- Delft University of Technology (NL)
- Venue
- Frontiers in Virtual Reality
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2023-05-19
- Volume
- 4
- ISSN
- 2673-4192 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4377139746
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 116
- Citations by year
- 2026: 59 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 5.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Virtual Reality (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Education › Education and Learning Interventions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
- Keywords
- virtual reality, cooperative learning, distance education, remote collaboration, social skills, student engagement, virtual reality systems, COVID-19 pandemic
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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