Cognitive Priming During Warmup Enhances Sport and Exercise Performance: A Goldilocks Effect
Open accessAbstract
Background: Mental fatigue can impair sport, exercise and cognitive performance. Warmup activities can improve performance when the individual is rested. However, their effectiveness when the individual is fatigued has yet to be established. The research objectives were to evaluate the effects of physical and combined physical plus cognitive warmup activities on subsequent sport, exercise, and cognitive performance when rested and fatigued by sleep restriction in athletes (Study 1) and older adults (Study 2). Methods: In Study 1, 31 padel players completed a padel performance test and Stroop task after physical and combined warmups when rested and fatigued by sleep deprivation. In Study 2, 32 older adults completed sit–stand, arm curl, walking, Stroop, and psychomotor vigilance tests after no warmup, physical warmup, and combined warmup when rested and fatigued by sleep deprivation. In both studies, combined warmups intermixed short-, medium-, or long-duration cognitive tasks between physical warmup activities. Mental fatigue was measured using visual analog scale ratings. Results: In both studies, sleep deprivation increased mental fatigue and impaired performance. In Study 1, relative to a physical warmup, padel and Stroop performance were improved by combined warmups (with short-to-medium cognitive tasks) when rested and fatigued. In Study 2, relative to no warmup, sit–stand, arm curl, walking, Stroop, and reaction time performance were improved by physical and combined warmups (with short-to-medium cognitive tasks) when rested and fatigued. Conclusions: The negative effects of sleep deprivation on sport, exercise, and cognitive performance were best mitigated by combined warmups with short-to-medium cognitive tasks. Combined warmups are effective countermeasures against the deleterious effects of mental fatigue on performance.
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Adding short cognitive tasks to standard physical warmup protocols further improved sport and exercise performance.
“Similarly, studies found that adding short cognitive tasks to standard physical warmup protocols further improved sport and exercise performance (Díaz‐García et al. 2025).”
From Warming Up Body and Mind: Combined Cognitive and Exercise Priming Improves 1‐Mile Time Trial Performance in Recreational Runners (2026) · cites this paper as Díaz‐García et al. 2025
Previous research described a Goldilocks effect in which brief Stroop tasks improved sport and exercise performance whereas long Stroop tasks impaired performance.
“These findings are broadly in line with previous research (Díaz‐García et al. 2025) that described a “Goldilocks effect” in which a series of brief Stroop tasks (150–263 s task duration lasting a total of 10–17.5 min) improved sport and exercise performance whereas long Stroop tasks (a 450 s duration lasting a total of 30 min) impaired performance.”
From Warming Up Body and Mind: Combined Cognitive and Exercise Priming Improves 1‐Mile Time Trial Performance in Recreational Runners (2026) · cites this paper as Díaz‐García et al. 2025
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- Authors
- Díaz-García, J., Rubio-Morales, A., Manzano-Rodríguez, D., García-Calvo, T., & Ring, C.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University “G. d’Annunzio”, 66013 Chieti-Pescara, Italy
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Caceres, Spain
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ring, Christopher
- Venue
- Brain Sciences
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2025-02-23
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 235
- ISSN
- 2076-3425 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11940224
- OpenAlex
- W4407907751
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 4
- FWCI
- 11.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Brain Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Institutional Repository University of Extremadura (University of Extremadura) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universidad de Extremadura
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Keywords
- cognitive priming, warm-up, mental fatigue, sleep deprivation, athletic performance, exercise performance, cognitive performance, Stroop task, psychomotor vigilance, older adults, athletes, padel, countermeasures
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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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