Automotive e-Fuels via Hydrocracking of FT-Wax: e-Gasoline and e-Diesel Production
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The main goal of this research is the production of e-fuels in gasoline- and diesel-range hydrocarbons via the hydrocracking of wax from Fischer–Tropsch (FT-wax) synthesis. The hydrogen for the hydrocracking process originated from solar energy via water electrolysis, thus, the produced fuels were called e-fuels. The FT-wax was produced via the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of syngas stream from the chemical looping gasification (CLG) of biogenic residues. For the hydrocracking tests, a continuous-operation TRL3 (Technology Readiness Level) pilot plant was utilized. At first, hydrocracking catalyst screening was performed for the upgrading of the FT-wax. Three hydrocracking catalysts were investigated (Ni-W, Ni-W zeolite-supported, and Ni-W Al2O3-supported catalyst) via various operating conditions to identify the optimal operating window for each one. These three catalysts were selected, as they are typical catalysts that are used in the petroleum refinery industry. The optimal catalyst was found to be the NiW catalyst, as it led to high e-fuel yields (38 wt% e-gasoline and 47 wt% e-diesel) with an average hydrogen consumption. The optimum operating window was found at a 603 K reactor temperature, 8.3 MPa system pressure, 1 hr−1 LHSV, and 2500 scfb H2/oil ratio. In the next phase, the production of 5 L of hydrocracked wax was performed utilizing the optimum NiW catalyst and the optimal operating parameters. The liquid product was further fractionated to separate the fractions of e-gasoline, e-diesel, and e-heavy fuel. The e-gasoline and e-diesel fractions were qualitatively assessed, indicating that they fulfilled almost all EN 228 and EN 590 for petroleum-based gasoline and diesel, respectively. Furthermore, a 12-month storage study showed that the product can be stored for a period of 4 months in ambient conditions. In general, green transportation e-fuels with favorable properties that met most of the fossil fuels specifications were produced successfully from the hydrocracking of FT-wax.
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Alternative pathways to e-diesel and e-kerosene include the hydrocracking of heavier waxes produced during Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or potentially routes via e-methanol as an intermediate.
“Alternative pathways to e-diesel and e-kerosene include the hydrocracking of heavier waxes produced during F-T synthesis [290] or potentially routes via e-methanol as an intermediate [285].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [290]
Liquid hydrocarbon e-Fuels with carbon chains typically ranging between C8 and C18, such as e-kerosene and e-diesel, are primarily generated by converting green hydrogen and captured CO2 through Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.
“Liquid hydrocarbon e-Fuels with carbon chains typically ranging between C8 and C18, such as e-kerosene and e-diesel, are primarily generated by converting green hydrogen and captured CO 2 through F-T synthesis [272,290].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [290]
E-Fuel production can generate commercially valuable by-products, including heat from exothermic reactions, oxygen from water electrolysis, and potentially waxes or other hydrocarbon fractions.
“Besides the primary fuel product, e-Fuel production can generate commercially valuable by-products, including heat from exothermic reactions, oxygen from water electrolysis, and potentially waxes or other hydrocarbon fractions depending on the synthesis route and conditions [290].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [290]
The Fischer-Tropsch reaction is highly exothermic, and the generated heat is typically integrated into the plant to improve overall process efficiency.
“The F-T reaction is highly exothermic, and the generated heat is typically integrated into the plant to improve overall process efficiency, for instance, by preheating reactants or generating steam [290].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [290]
The production pathway for all e-Fuels commences with the generation of hydrogen, predominantly green e-hydrogen, which is produced via water electrolysis powered exclusively by renewable electricity sources such as solar or wind energy.
“The production pathway for all e-Fuels commences with the generation of hydrogen, predominantly green e-hydrogen, which is produced via water electrolysis powered exclusively by renewable electricity sources such as solar or wind energy [18,290].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [290]
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Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
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- Authors
- Dimitriadis, A., Chrysikou, L., & Bezergianni, S.
- Affiliations
- Centre for Research and Technology Hellas (GR)
- Corresponding author
- Bezergianni, Stella
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2024-06-05
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2756
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4399359596
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6
- FWCI
- 0.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation (817841)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Catalysis › Catalysts for Methane Reforming
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Catalysis and Hydrodesulfurization Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Keywords
- e-fuels, Fischer-Tropsch wax, hydrocracking, NiW catalysts, zeolite-supported catalysts, Al2O3-supported catalysts, chemical looping gasification, biogenic residues, hydrogen production, fuel storage stability, EN 590, pilot plant
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