CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 209Electromagnetic Fields and Biological EffectsMillimeter-Wave Propagation and ModelingOcular and Laser Science Research

5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz

Open access
Simkó, Myrtill, Mattsson, Mats-Olof·2019·International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
DOI 10.3390/ijerph16183406PMC PMC6765906
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The introduction of the fifth generation (5G) of wireless communication will increase the number of high-frequency-powered base stations and other devices. The question is if such higher frequencies (in this review, 6–100 GHz, millimeter waves, MMW) can have a health impact. This review analyzed 94 relevant publications performing in vivo or in vitro investigations. Each study was characterized for: study type (in vivo, in vitro), biological material (species, cell type, etc.), biological endpoint, exposure (frequency, exposure duration, power density), results, and certain quality criteria. Eighty percent of the in vivo studies showed responses to exposure, while 58% of the in vitro studies demonstrated effects. The responses affected all biological endpoints studied. There was no consistent relationship between power density, exposure duration, or frequency, and exposure effects. The available studies do not provide adequate and sufficient information for a meaningful safety assessment, or for the question about non-thermal effects. There is a need for research regarding local heat developments on small surfaces, e.g., skin or the eye, and on any environmental impact. Our quality analysis shows that for future studies to be useful for safety assessment, design and implementation need to be significantly improved.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/ijerph16183406

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 123 · Cited by 209

Research works printed but not linked: 117

  1. [1]Chávez-Santiago R. Szydełko M. Kliks A. Foukalas F. Haddad Y. Nolan K.E. Kelly M.Y. Masonta M.T. Balasingham I. 5G: The Convergence of Wireless Communications Wirel. Pers. Commun. 2015 83 1617 1642 10.1007/s11277-015-2467-2 27076701 PMC4821549 · DOI
  2. [2]Chih-Lin I. Han S. Xu Z. Sun Q. Pan Z. 5G: Rethink mobile communications for 2020+ Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2016 374 20140432 10.1098/rsta.2014.0432 26809577 · DOI
  3. [4]Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) Opinion on: Potential health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields Bioelectromagnetics 2015 36 480 484 10.1002/bem.21930 26179386 · DOI
  4. [6]Marques M.M. Berrington de Gonzalez A. Beland F.A. Browne P. Demers P.A. Lachenmeier D.W. Bahadori T. Barupal D.K. Belpoggi F. Comba P. Advisory Group recommendations on priorities for the IARC Monographs Lancet Oncol. 2019 20 763 764 10.1016/S1470-2045(19)30246-3 31005580 · DOI
  5. [8]Mattsson M.O. Zeni O. Simkó M. Is there a Biological Basis for Therapeutic Applications of Millimetre Waves and THz Waves? J. Infrared Millim. Terahertz Waves 2018 39 863 878 10.1007/s10762-018-0483-5 · DOI
  6. [9]Ziskin M.C. Millimeter waves: Acoustic and electromagnetic Bioelectromagnetics 2013 34 3 14 10.1002/bem.21750 22926874 PMC3522782 · DOI
  7. [10]International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (Up to 300 GHz) Health Phys. 1998 74 494 522 9525427
  8. [11]IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3kHz to 300 GHz Technical report No. C95.1-2005 IEEE Piscataway, NJ, USA 2006 1 1991
  9. [12]IEEE Available online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/video/ telecom/wireless/ everything-you-need-to-know-about-5g (accessed on 8 August 2019)
  10. [14]Simkó M. Remondini D. Zeni O. Scarfi M.R. Quality Matters: Systematic Analysis of Endpoints Related to ‘Cellular Life’ in Vitro Data of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016 13 701 10.3390/ijerph13070701 PMC4962242 27420084 · DOI
  11. [16]Alekseev S.I. Gordiienko O.V. Radzievsky A.A. Ziskin M.C. Millimeter wave effects on electrical responses of the sural nerve in vivo Bioelectromagnetics 2010 31 180 190 10.1002/bem.20547 19771548 · DOI
  12. [17]Alekseev S.I. Radzievsky A.A. Szabo I. Ziskin M.C. Local heating of human skin by millimeter waves: Effect of blood flow Bioelectromagnetics 2005 26 489 501 10.1002/bem.20118 15931684 · DOI
  13. [18]Bush L.G. Hill D.W. Riazi A. Stensaas L.J. Partlow L.M. Gandhi O.P. Effects of millimeter-wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. III. A search for frequency-specific athermal biological effects on protein synthesis Bioelectromagnetics 1981 2 151 159 10.1002/bem.2250020206 7295362 · DOI · Paper page
  14. [19]Chatterjee I. Yoon J. Wiese R. Millimeter wave bioeffects at 94 GHz on skeletal muscle contraction Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Topical Conference on Biomedical Wireless Technologies, Networks, and Sensing Systems Austin, TX, USA 20–23 January 2013 67 69
  15. [20]Chen Q. Zeng Q.L. Lu D.Q. Chiang H. Millimeter Wave Exposure Reverses TPA Suppression of Gap Junction Intercellular Communication in HaCaT Human Keratinocytes Bioelectromagnetics 2004 25 1 4 10.1002/bem.10140 14696047 · DOI
  16. [21]D’Agostino S. Della Monica C. Palizzi E. Di Pietrantonio F. Benetti M. Cannatà D. Cavagnaro M. Sardari D. Stano P. Ramundo-Orlando A. Extremely High Frequency Electromagnetic Fields Facilitate Electrical Signal Propagation by Increasing Transmembrane Potassium Efflux in an Artificial Axon Model Sci. Rep. 2018 8 9299 10.1038/s41598-018-27630-8 29915373 PMC6006430 · DOI
  17. [22]Deghoyan A. Heqimyan A. Nikoghosyan A. Dadasyan E. Ayrapetyan S. Cell bathing medium as a target for non thermal effect of millimeter waves Electromagn. Biol. Med. 2012 31 132 142 10.3109/15368378.2011.624659 22352386 · DOI
  18. [23]Egot-Lemaire S.J.-P. Ziskin M.C. Dielectric properties of human skin at an acupuncture point in the 50–75 GHz frequency range: A pilot study Bioelectromagnetics 2011 32 360 366 10.1002/bem.20650 21284009 PMC3100425 · DOI
  19. [24]Franchini V. Franchini V. Regalbuto E. De Amicis A. De Sanctis S. Di Cristofaro S. Coluzzi E. Marinaccio J. Sgura A. Ceccuzzi S. Genotoxic Effects in Human Fibroblasts Exposed to Microwave Radiation Health Phys. 2018 115 126 139 10.1097/HP.0000000000000871 29787439 · DOI · Paper page
  20. [25]Frei M.R. Ryan K.L. Berger R.E. Jauchem J.R. Sustained 35-GHz radiofrequency irradiation induces circulatory failure Shock 1995 4 289 293 10.1097/00024382-199510000-00010 8564558 · DOI
  21. [26]Gapeyev A.B. Kulagina T.P. Aripovsky A.V. Chemeris N.K. The role of fatty acids in anti-inflammatory effects of low-intensity extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation Bioelectromagnetics 2011 32 388 395 10.1002/bem.20645 21287568 · DOI
  22. [27]Gapeyev A.B. Gapeyev A.B. Mikhailik E.N. Mikhailik E.N. Chemeris N.K. Anti-inflammatory effects of low-intensity extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation: Frequency and power dependence Bioelectromagnetics 2008 29 197 206 10.1002/bem.20381 18044738 · DOI
  23. [28]Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Effects of millimeter waves on ionic currents of Lymnaea neurons Bioelectromagnetics 1999 20 24 33 10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1999)20:1<24::AID-BEM4>3.0.CO;2-V 9915590 · DOI
  24. [29]Gapeyev A.B. Safronova V.G. Chemeris N.K. Fesenko E.E. Inhibition of the production of reactive oxygen species in mouse peritoneal neutrophils by millimeter wave radiation in the near and far field zones of the radiator Bioelectrochem. Bioenerg. 1997 43 217 220 10.1016/S0302-4598(96)05155-0 · DOI
  25. [30]Geletyuk V. Kazachenko V. Dual effects of microwaves on single Ca 2+-activated K+ channels in cultured kidney cells Vero FEBS Lett. 1995 359 85 88 10.1016/0014-5793(95)00002-Q 7851537 · DOI
  26. [31]Grundier W. Keilmann F. Nonthermal Effects of Millimeter Microwaves on Yeast Growth Z. Naturforsch. C 1978 33 15 22 10.1515/znc-1978-1-205 149448 · DOI
  27. [32]Haas A.J. Le Page Y. Zhadobov M. Boriskin A. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Impact of 60-GHz millimeter waves on stress and pain-related protein expression in differentiating neuron-like cells Bioelectromagnetics 2016 37 444 454 10.1002/bem.21995 27483046 · DOI
  28. [33]Haas A.J. Le Page Y. Zhadobov M. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Saligaut C. Effect of acute millimeter wave exposure on dopamine metabolism of NGF-treated PC12 cells J. Radiat. Res. 2017 58 439 445 10.1093/jrr/rrx004 28339776 PMC5569975 · DOI
  29. [34]Haas A.J. Le Page Y. Zhadobov M. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Effects of 60-GHz millimeter waves on neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells using high-content screening Neurosci. Lett. 2016 618 58 65 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.02.038 26921450 · DOI
  30. [35]Habauzit D. Le Quément C. Zhadobov M. Martin C. Aubry M. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Transcriptome analysis reveals the contribution of thermal and the specific effects in cellular response to millimeter wave exposure PLoS ONE 2014 9 e109435 10.1371/journal.pone.0109435 25302706 PMC4193780 · DOI
  31. [36]Ivanov V.B. Subbotina T.I. Khadartsev A.A. Yashin M.A. Yashin A.A. Exposure to low-intensive superhigh frequency electromagnetic field as a factor of carcinogenesis in experimental animals Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 2005 139 241 244 10.1007/s10517-005-0259-5 16027818 · DOI
  32. [37]Jauchem J.R. Ryan K.L. Walters T.J. Pathophysiological alterations induced by sustained 35-GHz radio-frequency energy heating J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2016 27 79 89 10.1515/jbcpp-2015-0011 26466165 · DOI
  33. [38]Kojima M. Hanazawa M. Yamashiro Y. Sasaki H. Watanabe S. Taki M. Suzuki Y. Hirata A. Kamimura Y. Sasaki K. Acute ocular injuries caused by 60-GHZ millimeter-wave exposure Heal. Phys. 2009 97 212 218 10.1097/HP.0b013e3181abaa57 19667804 · DOI
  34. [39]Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Kochetkova N.V. Bolshakov M.A. Millimeter waves thermally alter the firing rate of the Lymnaea pacemaker neuron Bioelectromagnetics 1997 18 89 98 10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:2<89::AID-BEM1>3.0.CO;2-0 9084859 · DOI
  35. [40]Kojima M. Kojima M. Suzuki Y. Sasaki K. Taki M. Wake K. Watanabe S. Mizuno M. Tasaki T. Sasaki H. Ocular Effects of Exposure to 40, 75, and 95 GHz Millimeter Waves J. Infrared Millim. Terahertz Waves 2018 39 912 925 10.1007/s10762-018-0497-z · DOI
  36. [41]Korenstein-Ilan A. Barbul A. Hasin P. Eliran A. Gover A. Korenstein R. Terahertz Radiation Increases Genomic Instability in Human Lymphocytes Radiat. Res. 2008 170 224 234 10.1667/RR0944.1 18666810 · DOI · Paper page
  37. [42]Koschnitzke C. Kremer F. Santo L. Quick P. Poglitsch A. A Non-Thermal Effect of Millimeter Wave Radiation on the Puffing of Giant Chromosomes Zeitschrift für Naturforsch C 1983 38 883 886 10.1515/znc-1983-9-1038 6649796 · DOI
  38. [43]Koyama S. Narita E. Shimizu Y. Suzuki Y. Shiina T. Taki M. Shinohara M. Miyakoshi J. Effects of long-term exposure to 60 GHz millimeter-wavelength radiation on the genotoxicity and heat shock protein (HSP) expression of cells derived from human eye Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016 13 802 10.3390/ijerph13080802 PMC4997488 27509516 · DOI · Paper page
  39. [44]Kues H.A. Anna S.A.D. Osiander R. Green W.R. Monahan J.C. Absence of Ocular Effects After Either Single or Repeated Exposure to 10 mW/cm2 from a 60 GHz CW Source Bioelectromagnetics 1999 473 463 473 10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(199912)20:8<463::AID-BEM1>3.0.CO;2-T 10559768 · DOI
  40. [45]Le Quément C. Nicolas Nicolaz C. Zhadobov M. Desmots F. Sauleau R. Aubry M. Michel D. Le Dréan Y. Whole-genome expression analysis in primary human keratinocyte cell cultures exposed to 60 GHz radiation Bioelectromagnetics 2012 33 147 158 21812010
  41. [46]LeQuément C. Nicolaz C.N. Habauzit D. Zhadobov M. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Impact of 60-GHz millimeter waves and corresponding heat effect on endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor gene expression Bioelectromagnetics 2014 35 444 451 10.1002/bem.21864 25099539 · DOI
  42. [47]Li X. Ye H. Yu F. Cai L. Li H. Chen J. Wu M. Chen W. Lin R. Li Z. Millimeter wave treatment promotes chondrocyte proliferation via G 1/S cell cycle transition Int. J. Mol. Med. 2012 29 823 831 10.3892/ijmm.2012.919 22344586 · DOI
  43. [48]Logani M.K. Agelan A. Ziskin M.C. Effect of millimeter wave radiation on catalase activity Electromagn. Biol. Med. 2002 21 303 308 10.1081/JBC-120016009 · DOI
  44. [49]Logani M.K. Anga A. Szabo I. Agelan A. Irizarry A.R. Ziskin M.C. Effect of millimeter waves on cyclophosphamide induced suppression of the immune system Bioelectromagnetics 2002 23 614 621 10.1002/bem.10058 12395417 · DOI
  45. [50]Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Millimeter microwave effect on ion transport across lipid bilayer membranes Bioelectromagnetics 1995 16 124 131 10.1002/bem.2250160209 7541990 · DOI
  46. [51]Makar V. Logani M. Szabo I. Zlskin M. Effect of Millimeter Waves on Cyclophosphamide Induced Suppression of T Cell Functions Bioelectromagnetics 2003 24 356 365 10.1002/bem.10106 12820293 · DOI
  47. [52]Makar V.R. Logani M.K. Bhanushali A. Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Effect of cyclophosphamide and 61.22 GHz millimeter waves on T-cell, B-cell, and macrophage functions Bioelectromagnetics 2006 27 458 466 10.1002/bem.20230 16622862 · DOI
  48. [53]Makar V.R. Logani M.K. Bhanushali A. Kataoka M. Ziskin M.C. Effect of millimeter waves on natural killer cell activation Bioelectromagnetics 2005 26 10 19 10.1002/bem.20046 15605409 · DOI
  49. [54]Mason P.A. Walters T.J. DiGiovanni J. Beason C.W. Jauchem J.R. Dick E.J. Jr. Mahajan K. Dusch S.J. Shields B.A. Merritt J.H. Lack of effect of 94 GHz radio frequency radiation exposure in an animal model of skin carcinogenesis in the radio frequency radiation (RFR) band is mutagenic, as either a promoter or co-promoter in some animal models of carcinogenesis. Recent develop Carcinogenesis 2001 22 1701 1708 10.1093/carcin/22.10.1701 11577012 · DOI
  50. [55]Millenbaugh N.J. Kiel J.L. Ryan K.L. Blystone R.V. Kalns J.E. Brott B.J. Cerna C.Z. Lawrence W.S. Soza L.L. Mason P.A. Comparison of blood pressure and thermal responses in rats exposed to millimeter wave energy or environmental heat Shock 2006 25 625 632 10.1097/01.shk.0000209550.11087.fd 16721271 · DOI
  51. [56]Millenbaugh N.J. Roth C. Sypniewska R. Chan V. Eggers J.S. Kiel J.L. Blystone R.V. Mason P.A. Gene expression changes in the skin of rats induced by prolonged 35 GHz millimeter-wave exposure Radiat. Res. 2008 169 288 300 10.1667/RR1121.1 18302488 · DOI
  52. [57]Narinyan L. Ayrapetyan S. Cyclic AMP-dependent signaling system is a primary metabolic target for non-thermal effect of microwaves on heart muscle hydration Electromagn. Biol. Med. 2017 36 182 191 10.1080/15368378.2016.1241803 28085517 · DOI
  53. [58]Nguyen T.H. Pham V.T. Nguyen S.H. Baulin V. Croft R.J. Phillips B. Crawford R.J. Ivanova E.P. The bioeffects resulting from prokaryotic cells and yeast being exposed to an 18 GHz electromagnetic field PLoS ONE 2016 11 e0158135 10.1371/journal.pone.0158135 27391488 PMC4938218 · DOI
  54. [59]Nicolaz C.N. Zhadobov M. Desmots F. Ansart A. Sauleau R. Thouroude D. Michel D. Le Drean Y. Study of narrow band millimeter-wave potential interactions with endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor genes Bioelectromagnetics 2009 30 365 373 10.1002/bem.20481 19274636 · DOI · Paper page
  55. [61]Bellossi A. Dubost G. Moulinoux J.P. Himdi M. Ruelloux M. Rocher C. Biological Effects of Millimeter-Wave Irradiation on Mice—Preliminary Results IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 2000 48 2104 2110
  56. [62]Pakhomov A.G. Prol H.K. Mathur S.P. Akyel Y. Campbell C.B.G.B.G. Role of field intensity in the biological effectiveness of millimeter waves at a resonance frequency Bioelectrochem. Bioenerg. 1997 43 27 33 10.1016/S0302-4598(97)00022-6 · DOI
  57. [63]Pakhomov A.G. Prol H.K. Mathur S.P. Akyel Y. Campbell C.B. Search for frequency-specific effects of millimeter-wave radiation on isolated nerve function Bioelectromagnetics 1997 18 324 334 10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:4<324::AID-BEM5>3.0.CO;2-4 9140663 · DOI
  58. [64]Partlow L.M. Bush L.G. Stensaas L.J. Hill D.W. Riazi A. Gandhi O.P. Effects of millimeter-wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. I. Design and validation of a novel exposure system Bioelectromagnetics 1981 2 123 140 10.1002/bem.2250020204 7295360 · DOI
  59. [65]Partyla T. Hacker H. Edinger H. Leutzow B. Lange J. Usichenko T. Remote Effects of Electromagnetic Millimeter Waves on Experimentally Induced Cold Pain: A Double-Blinded Crossover Investigation in Healthy Volunteers Anesth. Analg. 2017 124 980 985 10.1213/ANE.0000000000001657 27782945 · DOI
  60. [66]Pikov V. Arakaki X. Harrington M. Fraser S.E. Siegel P.H. Modulation of neuronal activity and plasma membrane properties with low-power millimeter waves in organotypic cortical slices J. Neural Eng. 2010 7 045003 10.1088/1741-2560/7/4/045003 20644247 · DOI
  61. [67]Radzievsky A. Gordiienko O. Cowan A. Alekseev S. Ziskin M. Millimeter-Wave-Induced Hypoalgesia in Mice: Dependence on Type of Experimental Pain IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 2004 32 1634 1643 10.1109/TPS.2004.830972 · DOI
  62. [68]Radzievsky A.A. Cowan A. Byrd C. Radzievsky A.A. Ziskin M.C. Single millimeter wave treatment does not impair gastrointestinal transit in mice Life Sci. 2002 71 1763 1770 10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01944-6 12151054 · DOI
  63. [69]Radzievsky A.A. Gordiienko O.V. Alekseev S. Szabo I. Cowan A. Ziskin M.C. Electromagnetic millimeter wave induced hypoalgesia: Frequency dependence and involvement of endogenous opioids Bioelectromagnetics 2008 29 284 295 10.1002/bem.20389 18064600 · DOI
  64. [70]Radzievsky A. Gordiienko O. Szabo I. Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Millimeter wave-induced suppression of B16 F10 melanoma growth in mice: Involvement of endogenous opioids Bioelectromagnetics 2004 25 466 473 10.1002/bem.20018 15300733 · DOI
  65. [71]Radzievsky A.A. Rojavin M.A. Cowan A. Alekseev S.I. Radzievsky A.A. Ziskin M.C. Peripheral neural system involvement in hypoalgesic effect of electromagnetic millimeter waves Life Sci. 2001 62 1143 1151 10.1016/S0024-3205(00)01016-X 11228098 · DOI
  66. [72]Beneduci A. Chidichimo G. De Rose R. Filippelli L. Straface S.V. Venuta S. Frequency and irradiation time-dependant antiproliferative effect of low-power millimeter waves on RPMI 7932 human melanoma cell line Anticancer Res. 2005 25 1023 1028 15868942
  67. [73]Radzievsky A.A. Rojavin M.A. Cowan A. Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Hypoalgesic effect of millimeter waves in mice: Dependence on the site of exposure Life Sci. 2000 66 2101 2111 10.1016/S0024-3205(00)00536-1 10823349 · DOI
  68. [74]Radzievsky A.A. Rojavin M.A. Cowan A. Ziskin M.C. Suppression of pain sensation caused by millimeter waves: A double-blinded, cross-over, prospective human volunteer study Anesth. Analg. 1999 88 836 840 10.1213/00000539-199904000-00029 10195534 · DOI
  69. [75]Rojavin M.A. Cowan A. Radzievsky A.A. Ziskin M.C. Antipruritic effect of millimeter waves in mice: Evidence for opioid involvement Life Sci. 1998 63 251 257 10.1016/S0024-3205(98)00436-6 9806220 · DOI
  70. [76]Rojavin M.A. Radzievsky A.A. Cowan A. Ziskin M.C. Pain relief caused by millimeter waves in mice: Results of cold water tail flick tests Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 2000 76 575 579 10815639
  71. [77]Romanenko S. Siegel P.H. Wagenaar D.A. Pikov V. Effects of millimeter wave irradiation and equivalent thermal heating on the activity of individual neurons in the leech ganglion J. Neurophysiol. 2014 112 2423 2431 10.1152/jn.00357.2014 25122711 PMC4233276 · DOI
  72. [78]Ryan K.L. Frei M.R. Berger R.E. Jauchem J.R. Does nitric oxide mediate circulatory failure induced by 35-GHz microwave heating? Shock 1996 6 71 76 10.1097/00024382-199607000-00015 8828089 · DOI
  73. [79]Ryan K.L. Frei M.R. Jauchem J.R. Circulatory failure induced by 35 GHz microwave heating: Effects of chronic nitric oxide synthesis inhibition Shock 1997 7 70 76 10.1097/00024382-199701000-00010 8989840 · DOI
  74. [80]Safronova V.G. Gabdoulkhakova A.G. Santalov B.F. Immunomodulating Action of Low Intensity Millimeter Waves on Primed Neutrophils Bioelectromagnetics 2002 23 599 606 10.1002/bem.10056 12395415 · DOI
  75. [81]Samoilov V.O. Shadrin E.B. Filippova E.B. Katsnelson Y. Backhoff H. Eventov M. The effect of transcranial electromagnetic brain stimulation on the acquisition of the conditioned response in rats Biophysics 2015 60 303 308 10.1134/S0006350915020165 26016036 · DOI
  76. [82]Samsonov A. Popov S.V. The effect of a 94 GHz electromagnetic field on neuronal microtubules Bioelectromagnetics 2013 34 133 144 10.1002/bem.21760 23080284 · DOI
  77. [83]Beneduci A. Chidichimo G. Tripepi S. Perrotta E. Transmission electron microscopy study of the effects produced by wide-band low-power millimeter waves on MCF-7 human breast cancer cells in culture Anticancer Res. 2005 25 1009 1013 15868940
  78. [84]Shanin S.N. Rybakina E.G. Novikova N.N. Kozinets I.A. Rogers V.J. Korneva E.A. Natural killer cell cytotoxic activity and c-Fos protein synthesis in rat hypothalamic cells after painful electric stimulation of the hind limbs and EHF irradiation of the skin Med. Sci Monit. 2005 11 BR309 BR315 16127352
  79. [85]Shapiro M.G. Priest M.F. Siegel P.H. Bezanilla F. Thermal Mechanisms of Millimeter Wave Stimulation of Excitable Cells Biophys. J. 2013 104 2622 2628 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.05.014 23790370 PMC3686354 · DOI
  80. [86]Shckorbatov Y.G. Grigoryeva N.N. Shakhbazov V.G. Grabina V.A. Bogoslavsky A.M. Microwave irradiation influences on the state of human cell nuclei Bioelectromagnetics 1998 19 414 419 10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1998)19:7<414::AID-BEM2>3.0.CO;2-4 9771584 · DOI
  81. [87]Sivachenko I.B. Medvedev D.S. Molodtsova I.D. Panteleev S.S. Sokolov A.Y. Lyubashina O.A. Effects of Millimeter-Wave Electromagnetic Radiation on the Experimental Model of Migraine Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 2016 160 425 428 10.1007/s10517-016-3187-7 26899844 · DOI
  82. [88]Soubere Mahamoud Y. Aite M. Martin C. Zhadobov M. Sauleau R. Le Dréan Y. Habauzit D. Additive Effects of Millimeter Waves and 2-Deoxyglucose Co-Exposure on the Human Keratinocyte Transcriptome PLoS ONE 2016 11 e0160810 10.1371/journal.pone.0160810 27529420 PMC4986955 · DOI
  83. [89]Stensaas L.J. Partlow L.M. Bush L.G. Iversen P.L. Hill D.W. Hagmann M.J. Gandhi O.P. Effects of millimeter-wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. II. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy Bioelectromagnetics 1981 2 141 150 10.1002/bem.2250020205 7295361 · DOI
  84. [90]Sun S. Titushkin I. Varner J. Cho M. Millimeter Wave-induced Modulation of Calcium Dynamics in an Engineered Skin Co-culture Model: Role of Secreted ATP on Calcium Spiking J. Radiat. Res. 2012 53 159 167 10.1269/jrr.11037 22510588 · DOI
  85. [91]Sypniewska R.K. Millenbaugh N.J. Kiel J.L. Blystone R.V. Ringham H.N. Mason P.A. Witzmann F.A. Protein changes in macrophages induced by plasma from rats exposed to 35 GHz millimeter waves Bioelectromagnetics 2010 31 656 663 10.1002/bem.20598 20683908 · DOI
  86. [92]Szabo I. Kappelmayer J. Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Millimeter wave induced reversible externalization of phosphatidylserine molecules in cells exposed in vitro Bioelectromagnetics 2006 27 233 244 10.1002/bem.20202 16437546 · DOI
  87. [93]Szabo I. Manning M.R. Radzlevsky A.A. Wetzel M.A. Rogers T.J. Ziskin M.C. Low Power Millimeter Wave Irradiation Exerts No Harmful Effect on Human Keratinocytes In Vitro Bioelectromagnetics 2003 24 165 173 10.1002/bem.10077 12669299 · DOI
  88. [94]Beneduci A. Chidichimo G. Tripepi S. Perrotta E. Cufone F. Antiproliferative effect of millimeter radiation on human erythromyeloid leukemia cell line K562 in culture: Ultrastructural and metabolic-induced changes Bioelectrochemistry 2007 70 214 220 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2006.07.008 16959547 · DOI
  89. [95]Szabo I. Rojavin M.A. Rogers T.J. Ziskin M.C. Reactions of keratinocytes to in vitro millimeter wave exposure Bioelectromagnetics 2001 22 358 364 10.1002/bem.62 11424160 · DOI
  90. [96]Titushkin I.A. Rao V.S. Pickard W.F. Moros E.G. Shafirstein G. Cho M.R. Altered Calcium Dynamics Mediates P19-Derived Neuron-Like Cell Responses to Millimeter-Wave Radiation Radiat. Res. 2009 172 725 763 10.1667/RR1760.1 19929419 · DOI
  91. [97]Tong Y. Yang Z. Yang D. Chu H. Qu M. Liu G. Wu Y. Liu S. Millimeter-wave exposure promotes the differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells into cells with a neural phenotype J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technolog. Med. Sci. 2009 29 409 412 10.1007/s11596-009-0403-y 19662352 · DOI
  92. [98]Logani M.K. Bhanushali A. Ziskin M.C. Prihoda T.J. Micronuclei in peripheral blood and bone marrow cells of mice exposed to 42 GHz electromagnetic millimeter waves Radiat. Res. 2004 161 341 345 10.1667/RR3121 14982479 · DOI
  93. [99]Vlasova I.I. Mikhalchik E.V. Gusev A.A. Balabushevich N.G. Gusev S.A. Kazarinov K.D. Extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation enhances neutrophil response to particulate agonists Bioelectromagnetics 2018 39 144 155 10.1002/bem.22103 29194676 · DOI
  94. [100]Volkova N.A. Pavlovich E.V. Gapon A.A. Nikolov O.T. Effects of millimeter-wave electromagnetic exposure on the morphology and function of human cryopreserved spermatozoa Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 2014 157 574 576 10.1007/s10517-014-2618-6 25257416 · DOI
  95. [101]Wu G. Sferra T. Chen X. Chen Y. Wu M. Xu H. Peng J. Liu X. Millimeter wave treatment inhibits the mitochondrion-dependent apoptosis pathway in chondrocytes Mol. Med. Rep. 2011 4 1001 1006 21720719
  96. [102]Wu G.W. Liu X.X. Wu M.X. Zhao J.Y. Chen W.L. Lin R.H. Lin J.M. Experimental study of millimeter wave-induced differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells into chondrocytes Int. J. Mol. Med. 2009 23 461 467 19288021
  97. [103]Xia L. Luo Q.-L. Lin H.-D. Zhang J.-L. Guo H. He C.-Q. The effect of different treatment time of millimeter wave on chondrocyte apoptosis, caspase-3, caspase-8, and MMP-13 expression in rabbit surgically induced model of knee osteoarthritis Rheumatol. Int. 2012 32 2847 2856 10.1007/s00296-011-2080-y 21881990 · DOI
  98. [104]Xie T. Pei J. Cui Y. Zhang J. Qi H. Chen S. Qiao D. EEG changes as heat stress reactions in rats irradiated by high intensity 35 GHZ millimeter waves Health Phys. 2011 100 632 640 10.1097/HP.0b013e3182027d10 22004932 · DOI
  99. [105]Beneduci A. Evaluation of the Potential In Vitro Antiproliferative Effects of Millimeter Waves at Some Therapeutic Frequencies on RPMI 7932 Human Skin Malignant Melanoma Cells Cell Biochem. Biophys. 2009 55 25 32 10.1007/s12013-009-9053-8 19536459 · DOI
  100. [106]Yaekashiwa N. Otsuki S. Hayashi S. Kawase K. Investigation of the non-thermal effects of exposing cells to 70-300 GHz irradiation using a widely tunable source J. Radiat. Res. 2018 59 116 121 10.1093/jrr/rrx075 29281029 PMC5951075 · DOI
  101. [107]Yu G. Coln E.A. Schoenbach K.H. Gellerman M. Fox P. Rec L. Beebe S.J. Liu S. A study on biological effects of low-intensity millimeter waves IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 2002 30 1489 1496
  102. [108]Zhadobov M. Desmots F. Thouroude D. Michel D. Drean Y. Evaluation of the potential biological effects of the 60-GHz millimeter waves upon human cells IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 2009 57 2949 2956 10.1109/TAP.2009.2029308 · DOI · Paper page
  103. [110]Aminzadeh R. Thielens A. Bamba A. Kone L. Gaillot D.P. Lienard M. Martens L. Joseph W. On-body calibration and measurements using personal radiofrequency exposimeters in indoor diffuse and specular environments Bioelectromagnetics 2016 37 298 309 10.1002/bem.21975 27121268 · DOI
  104. [111]Colombi D. Thors B. Tornevik C. Balzano Q. RF Energy Absorption by Biological Tissues in Close Proximity to Millimeter-Wave 5G Wireless Equipment IEEE Access 2018 6 4974 4981 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2790038 · DOI
  105. [112]Neufeld E. Carrasco E. Murbach M. Balzano Q. Christ A. Kuster N. Theoretical and numerical assessment of maximally allowable power-density averaging area for conservative electromagnetic exposure assessment above 6 GHz Bioelectromagnetics 2018 39 617 630 10.1002/bem.22147 30383885 · DOI
  106. [113]Foster K.R. Ziskin M.C. Balzano Q. Thermal modeling for the next generation of radiofrequency exposure limits: Commentary Health Phys. 2017 113 41 53 10.1097/HP.0000000000000671 28542010 · DOI
  107. [114]Foster K.R. Ziskin M.C. Balzano Q. Thermal Response of Human Skin to Microwave Energy: A Critical Review Health Phys. 2016 111 528 541 10.1097/HP.0000000000000571 27798477 · DOI
  108. [115]Zhadobov M. Alekseev S.I. Sauleau R. Le Page Y. Le Drean Y. Fesenko E.E. Microscale temperature and SAR measurements in cell monolayer models exposed to millimeter waves Bioelectromagnetics 2017 38 11 21 10.1002/bem.21999 27571392 · DOI
  109. [116]Alekseev S.I. Gordiienko O.V. Ziskin M.C. Reflection and penetration depth of millimeter waves in murine skin Bioelectromagnetics 2008 29 340 344 10.1002/bem.20401 18220297 · DOI
  110. [117]Alekseev S.I. Radzievsky A.A. Logani M.K. Ziskin M.C. Millimeter wave dosimetry of human skin Bioelectromagnetics 2008 29 65 70 10.1002/bem.20363 17929264 · DOI
  111. [118]Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Fesenko E.E. Frequency dependence of heating of human skin exposed to millimeter waves Biophysics 2012 57 90 93 10.1134/S0006350912010046 22567917 · DOI
  112. [119]Laakso I. Morimoto R. Heinonen J. Jokela K. Hirata A. Human exposure to pulsed fields in the frequency range from 6 to 100 GHz Phys. Med. Biol. 2017 62 6980 6992 10.1088/1361-6560/aa81fe 28791963 · DOI
  113. [120]Feldman Y. Puzenko A. Ben Ishai P. Caduff A. Agranat A.J. Human skin as arrays of helical antennas in the millimeter and submillimeter wave range Proceedings of the 2008 33rd International Conference on Infrared, Millimeter and Terahertz Waves Pasadena, CA, USA 27 March 2008 1 2 18517913
  114. [121]Shafirstein G. Moros E.G. Modelling millimetre wave propagation and absorption in a high resolution skin model: The effect of sweat glands Phys. Med. Biol. 2011 56 1329 10.1088/0031-9155/56/5/007 21297244 · DOI
  115. [122]Alekseev S.I. Ziskin M.C. Enhanced absorption of millimeter wave energy in murine subcutaneous blood vessels Bioelectromagnetics 2011 32 423 433 10.1002/bem.20658 21344460 PMC3118398 · DOI
  116. [123]Sasaki K. Wake K. Watanabe S. Measurement of the dielectric properties of the epidermis and dermis at frequencies from 0.5 GHz to 110 GHz Phys. Med. Biol. 2014 59 4739 4747 10.1088/0031-9155/59/16/4739 25082800 · DOI
  117. [125]Foster K.R. Morrissey J.J. Thermal aspects of exposure to radiofrequency energy: Report of a workshop Int. J. Hyperth. 2011 27 307 319 10.3109/02656736.2010.545965 21591896 · DOI

Authors
Simkó, M., & Mattsson, M.-O.
Affiliations
SciProof International AB, Vaktpoststigen 4, 83132 Östersund, Sweden
Corresponding author
Simkó, Myrtill
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-09-13
Volume
16
Issue
18
Pages
3406
ISSN
1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ijerph16183406
PMC
PMC6765906
OpenAlex
W2973214144
Cited by
209
References
123
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 28
FWCI
3.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Deutsche Telekom Technik GmbH, Bonn, Germany (4806344812)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Ocular and Laser Science Research
Keywords
5G, millimeter wave, health effects of electromagnetic fields, non-thermal effects, power density, exposure duration, in vitro and in vivo studies, biological endpoints, safety assessment, local heating
MeSH terms
Animals, Environmental Exposure, Humans, Wireless Technology, Electromagnetic Radiation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review