Validation and Adaptation of the Slovak Version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ)
Open accessAbstract
Background: Previous research has shown a strong relationship between childhood trauma and worsened physical and mental health. The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) is a commonly used tool assessing early traumatic experiences. The aim of this study was to verify the psychometric properties of the Slovak version of the CTQ. Methods: Data were collected on a representative Slovak sample (N = 1018, mean age 46.24 years, 48.7% of men). The dimensional structure of the CTQ was tested by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA); convergent validity was assessed using the Adverse Childhood Questionnaire (ACE-IQ). Results: CFA confirmed the standard 5-factor CTQ model. The subscales of the CTQ and the ACE-IQ questionnaires showed moderate to high correlations. The internal consistency of the scale was found to be acceptable. Emotional neglect (EN) was reported in 48.1%, physical neglect (PN) in 35.8%, emotional abuse in 15.8%, physical abuse (PA) in 11.0%, and sexual abuse (SA) in 9.1% of the Slovak population, according to the scoring, when even low abuse or neglect is assessed as trauma. Conclusion: The CTQ questionnaire fulfilled the validation criteria and appeared to be a suitable method for assessing retrospectively reported childhood trauma experiences in the Slovak population.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In previous studies in Czech and Slovak representative samples, participants with lower achieved education reported significantly higher occurrence of abuse and neglect in childhood compared to participants with higher achieved education.
“In previous studies in Czech and Slovak representative samples, participants with lower achieved education reported significantly higher occurrence of abuse and neglect in childhood compared to participants with higher achieved education [4, 5].”
From Associations of childhood trauma with long-term diseases and alcohol and nicotine use disorders in Czech and Slovak representative samples (2022) · cites this paper as [5]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
<b>lavaan</b> : An <i>R</i> Package for Structural Equation Modeling
Rosseel, Y. (2012) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v048.i02 · Cited by 27,955 · see citing works
Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
Bernstein, D. P., Stein, J. A., Newcomb, M. D., Walker, E., Pogge, D., Ahluvalia, T., Stokes, J., Handelsman, L., Medrano, M., Desmond, D., et al. (2003) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00541-0 · Cited by 6,419 · see citing works
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(17)30118-4 · Cited by 5,255 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Childhood trauma experiences pose a higher possibility for the later development of alcoholism, depression, and eating disorders; a higher occurrence of dangerous sexual behavior, HIV and AIDS; an increased risk of heart diseases, cancer, other chronic diseases [7], later overweight, physical inactivity, and smoking;…”
BackgroundNorman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349 · Cited by 3,387 · see citing works
Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence
Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x · Cited by 2,827 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Studies about the validity of retrospective reports of childhood trauma show a tendency to underreport it [50]; therefore, it can be assumed that the real prevalence was much higher.”
BackgroundHeim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01157-x · Cited by 2,791 · see citing works
Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load and age-related disease
Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.019 · Cited by 2,140 · see citing works
The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: review of a series of meta-analyses
Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Alink, L. R. A., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2353 · Cited by 1,542 · see citing works
Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0091-7435(03)00123-3 · Cited by 1,034 · see citing works
The childhood trauma questionnaire in a community sample: Psychometric properties and normative data
Scher, C. D., Stein, M. B., Asmundson, G. J. G., McCreary, D. R., & Forde, D. R. (2001) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1013058625719 · Cited by 726 · see citing works
Adult health status of women with histories of childhood abuse and neglect
Walker, E. A., Gelfand, A., Katon, W. J., Koss, M. P., Von Korff, M., Bernstein, D., & Russo, J. (1999) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0002-9343(99)00235-1 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Klinitzke, G., Romppel, M., Häuser, W., Brähler, E., & Glaesmer, H. (2011) · PPmP - Psychotherapie · Psychosomatik · Medizinische Psychologie · doi:10.1055/s-0031-1295495 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Prevalence and demographic correlates of childhood maltreatment in an adult community sample
Scher, C. D., Forde, D. R., McQuaid, J. R., & Stein, M. B. (2004) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.09.012 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Child maltreatment in Germany: prevalence rates in the general population
Witt, A., Brown, R. C., Plener, P. L., Brähler, E., & Fegert, J. M. (2017) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-017-0185-0 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Thombs, B. D., Bernstein, D. P., Lobbestael, J., & Arntz, A. (2009) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.03.001 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Maltreatment in Childhood and Adolescence
Häuser, W., Schmutzer, G., Brähler, E., & Glaesmer, H. (2011) · Deutsches Ärzteblatt international · doi:10.3238/arztebl.2011.0287 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
The Effects of World War II on Economic and Health Outcomes across Europe
Kesternich, I., Siflinger, B. M., Smith, J. P., & Winter, J. (2013) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest_a_00353 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., Hickendorff, M., van Hemert, A. M., Bernstein, D. P., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000002 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Evans, S. E., Steel, A. L., & DiLillo, D. (2013) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.005 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
(2001) · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Grassi‐Oliveira, R., Cogo‐Moreira, H., Salum, G. A., Brietzke, E. M., Viola, T. W., Manfro, G. G., Kristensen, C. H., & Arteche, A. X. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087118 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Initial Validation of the Spanish Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form
Hernández, A., Gallardo‐Pujol, D., Pereda, N., Arntz, A. R., Bernstein, D. P., Gaviria, A. M., Labad, A., Valero, J., & Gutiérrez-Zotes, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260512468240 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Risser, H. J., Hetzel‐Riggin, M. D., Thomsen, C. J., & McCanne, T. R. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20156 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Kidman, R., Smith, D., Piccolo, L., & Kohler, H. (2019) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.03.015 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Schmidt, M. R., Narayan, A. J., Atzl, V. M., Rivera, L. M., & Lieberman, A. F. (2018) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2018.1524806 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
A Validation of the Adverse Childhood Experiences Scale in Nigeria
Kazeem, O. T. (2015) · Research on humanities and social sciences · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Unholy Trinity: Childhood Trauma, Adulthood Anxiety, and Long-Term Pain
Kaščáková, N., Fürstová, J., Hašto, J., Gecková, A. M., & Tavel, P. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17020414 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationKongerslev, M., Bach, B., Rossi, G. M. P., Trauelsen, A. M., Ladegaard, N., Løkkegaard, S. S., & Bo, S. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104026 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Patterns of Childhood Abuse and Neglect in a Representative German Population Sample
Schilling, C., Weidner, K., Brähler, E., Glaesmer, H., Häuser, W., & Pöhlmann, K. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159510 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Park, E., Kim, S.-Y., Kim, Y., Sung, D., Kim, B., Hyun, Y., Jung, K.-I., Lee, S., Kim, H., Park, S., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010236 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Association between Childhood Maltreatment History and Premenstrual Syndrome
Ito, K., Doi, S. K., Isumi, A., & Fujiwara, T. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18020781 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Child Maltreatment in Western China: Demographic Differences and Associations with Mental Health
Zhou, Y., Liang, Y., Cheng, J., Zheng, H., & Liu, Z. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16193619 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Childhood maltreatment is associated with depression but not with hypochondriasis in later life
Bailer, J., Witthöft, M., Wagner, H., Mier, D. U., Diener, C., & Rist, F. (2014) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2014.06.004 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Schulz, A., Schmidt, C. O., Appel, K., Mahler, J., Spitzer, C., Wingenfeld, K., Barnow, S., Drießen, M., Freyberger, H. J., Völzke, H., et al. (2014) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1447 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Spies, G., Kidd, M., & Seedat, S. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.002 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
(2004) · The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods · doi:10.4135/9781412950589.n148 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Cheng, Y., Chen, C.-H., Chou, K.-R., Kuo, P., & Huang, M. (2018) · 臺灣精神醫學 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Childhood Trauma Is Associated with the Spirituality of Non-Religious Respondents
Košárková, A., Maliňáková, K., Koncalova, Z., Tavel, P., & van Dijk, J. P. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17041268 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationAnxiety and Avoidance in Adults and Childhood Trauma Are Associated with Negative Religious Coping
Košárková, A., Maliňáková, K., van Dijk, J. P., & Tavel, P. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17145147 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationPrevalence of Traumatic Experiences in South Korean Adults
Kim, S., Kim, G., & Park, S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17113959 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Schore, A. N. (2001) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/1097-0355(200101/04)22:1
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 42 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [33]Central Office of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic Ročné výkazy V12 MPSVR SR o Vykonávaní Opatrení Sociálnoprávnej Ochrany Detí a Sociálnej Kurately 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017 Available online: https://www.upsvr.gov.sk/statistiky/rocne-vykazy-mpsvr-sr/rocne-vykazy-v12-mpsvr-sr-o-vykonavani-opatreni-socialnopravnej-ochrany-deti-a-socialnej-kurately-2008-2009-2010-2011.html?page_id=77297 (accessed on 1 September 2020)
- [37]Bernstein D.P. Fink L. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, A Retrospective Self-report: Manual NCS Pearson San Antonio, TX, USA 1998
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Peng, C., Cheng, J., Rong, F., Wang, Y., & Yu, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1130683 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Role of Childhood Trauma in Psychosis and Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review
Inyang, B., Gondal, F. J., Abah, G. A., Dhandapani, M. M., Manne, M., Khanna, M., Challa, S., Kabeil, A. S., & Mohammed, L. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.21466 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Zhao, K., Tong, S.-Y., Hong, L., Yang, S., Yang, W., Xu, Y., Fan, Z., Zheng, J., Yao, K., & Zheng, T. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04848-z · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Li, K., Zhan, X., Ren, L., Liu, N., Zhang, L., Li, L., Chen, T., Feng, Z., & Luo, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.853951 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Wang, H., Liao, Y., Guo, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., Lai, W., Teopiz, K. M., Song, W., Zhu, D., Li, L., et al. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04297-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Guo, X., Tang, G., Lin, F., Fang, H., Chen, J., & Zou, T. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06369-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Švecová, J., Fürstová, J., Kaščáková, N., Hašto, J., & Tavel, P. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01270-8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationKascakova, N., Petrikova, M., Furstova, J., Hasto, J., Geckova, A. M., & Tavel, P. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14160-2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationLuo, Q., Yu, H., Chen, J., Lin, X., Wu, Z., Yao, J., Li, Y., Wu, H., & Peng, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.852799 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
García-Fernández, A., Martínez-Cao, C., Sánchez-Fernández-Quejo, A., Bobes-Bascarán, T., Andreo-Jover, J., Ayad‐Ahmed, W., Cebrià, A. I., Díaz‐Marsá, M., Torres, N. G., Gómez‐Vallejo, S., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1378486 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Aizpurúa, E., Caravaca-Sánchez, F., & Wolff, N. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106527 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Morán, J., Ríos, U., Costa‐Cordella, S., Barría, C., Carvajal, V., Valenzuela, K., & Wasserman, D. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100359 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Löfberg, A., Gustafsson, P. A., Gauffin, E., Perini, I., Heilig, M. A., & Capusan, A. J. (2022) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000001091 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Increased Brain Age Among Psychiatrically Healthy Adults Exposed to Childhood Trauma
Hendrikse, C. J., van den Heuvel, L. L., Emsley, R. A., Seedat, S., & du Plessis, S. S. (2025) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70450 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Muzi, S., Rogier, G., & Pace, C. S. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08250-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Willoughby, K., Atallah, S., Arbeau, K., Pearce, J., Ketelaars, T., & Pierre, J. S. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21111441 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jiskrova, G. K., Ksinan, A. J., Pikhart, H., Bobák, M., Klánová, J., & Lacey, R. E. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-01004-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Assessment of Effectiveness of School-Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis
Türkkan, T., & Odacı, H. (2024) · Hacettepe University Journal of Education · doi:10.16986/huje.2024.514 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wang, H., Liao, Y., Guo, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., Lai, W., Teopiz, K. M., Song, W., Zhu, D., Li, L., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1891863/v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Saadat, S., Bjärtå, A., Azizi, B. A., Hamad, J., Talbian, W., & Afsharzada, M. S. (2025) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2025.100605 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wang, H., Liao, Y., Guo, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., Lai, W., Teopiz, K. M., Song, W., Zhu, D., Li, L., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21340519
Paz-Vilchez, M. M., Moreno-Acosta, Y., Cjuno, J., & Llanos, J. J. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1939936
- Authors
- Petrikova, M., Kascakova, N., Furstova, J., Hasto, J., & Tavel, P.
- Affiliations
- Palacký University Olomouc (CZ)
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University Olomouc, Univerzitní 22, 77111 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Corresponding author
- Petrikova, Martina
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-03-02
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 2440
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7967575
- OpenAlex
- W3134697231
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 9
- FWCI
- 2.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky (19-18964S)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Keywords
- Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, childhood trauma, Slovak translation, psychometric validation, emotional neglect, physical neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, internal consistency, Slovak population
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Abuse, Female, Humans, Male, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Retrospective Studies, Slovakia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
