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Cited by 8Insect Utilization and EffectsInsect behavior and control techniquesNeurobiology and Insect Physiology Research

Sex-Specific Perching: Monitoring of Artificial Plants Reveals Dynamic Female-Biased Perching Behavior in the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)

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Lemke, Noah B., Rollison, Lisa N., Tomberlin, Jeffery K.·2024·Insects
DOI 10.3390/insects15100770PMC PMC11508282

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Abstract

Artificial perches are implemented by many companies that mass-rear the black soldier fly (BSF), to emulate a natural breeding environment or provide additional surface area for flies to rest; however, basic information about perching behavior is lacking. This experiment tested the effect of adding 0.00, 0.04, 0.26, or 0.34 m2 of surface area to 0.93 m3 cages, each supplied with 90 male and 90 female adults. Female thoraxes marked with acrylic paint, and the number of perching flies of each sex were recorded over 6 d. A time-series analysis revealed the following: (a) females utilized perches 1.42 times more often than males across two trials; (b) especially in the morning where the difference could be as high as 2.56 times as great; (c) this decreased to 0.20–1.57 times more females than males by 1600 h; and (d) this cyclical pattern repeated each day throughout the week with a decreasing female-bias, starting from 2.41-times more females on day 1, which fell to 0.88–1.98-times more females than males on day 6. These dynamics are likely due to the presence of male flies engaging in aerial contests near ultraviolet lamps required for mating, especially during the early hours and early adulthood, aligning with and expanding prior knowledge of black soldier fly mating behavior.

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  • Increased perching area provided by plants increases mating rates in BSF, with magnitude varying with plant density.

    “the increased perching area provided by the plants has been shown to increase mating rates, although the magnitude of the effects varies with the density of the plants provided (Lemke et  al.  2024; Grosso et  al.  2025).”

    From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke et al. 2024

    The Methods (§2.6) identify mating events as a fitness metric tested against plant treatment and leaf area. The Results (§3.1) report no statistical effect of treatment on any tested fitness metric, contrary to the claimed increase in mating rates with plant density. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.89)

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  • In captivity, female BSF have been observed to momentarily leave their perch to enter male swarms occurring near artificial light sources before either returning to perch or descending in copula.

    “In captivity, females have been observed to momentarily leave their perch (on artificial plants or walls) to enter male swarms occurring near artificial light sources (Lemke et al. 2024) before either returning to perch or descending in copula .”

    From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke et al. 2024

    The Discussion (§4.3) reports casual observations of females joining aerial swarms and then returning to their perches; §4.4 describes male mating swarms near lights in the captive cages. Our copy does not document females descending in copula after entering a swarm or identify walls as the perches they left. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Male BSF flight activity peaks in the late morning and early afternoon, followed by a peak in female activity later in the day.

    “The timing of these interactions is structured, with male flight activity peaking in the late morning and early afternoon, followed by a peak in female activity later in the day (Lemke et al. 2024).”

    From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke et al. 2024

    The Abstract links early-hour perching patterns to males engaging in aerial contests, and Discussion §4.3 says mating intensity generally peaks by 12:00 under artificial light or 15:00 under natural light. But the paper measured perching and mating events, not sex-specific flight-activity peaks. It only suggests that females might leave perches to join mating swarms later in the day; it does not establish a later female flight peak. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Some studies report a clear behavioural segregation of the sexes, but other aspects of lekking are often not reported because most detailed behavioural studies in BSF are typically done at small scale, because manual observations become impossible even at modest densities.

    “Although some studies report a clear behavioural segregation of the sexes (Lemke et  al.  2024), other aspects of lekking are often not reported because most detailed behavioural studies in BSF are typically done at small scale, because manual observations of BSF behaviour become impossible even at modest densities.”

    From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke et al. 2024

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  • Some field and lab observations document stable male aggregations, whilst other reports mention no aggregation except within ephemeral mating balls involving multiple males.

    “Some field and lab observations document stable male aggregations (Tomberlin and Sheppard 2001; Lemke et al. 2024), whilst other reports mention no aggregation except within ephemeral mating balls involving multiple males (Permana et  al.  2020), although these might be incorrectly mistaken for leks.”

    From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke et al. 2024

    The Discussion (§4.4, page unavailable) reports male aerial swarms in captivity and prolonged bouts of mating behavior near lights, supporting the observation of male aggregations. It does not establish that those aggregations were stable, rather than recurring or changing over time. The separate claim about ephemeral mating balls is attributed to Permana et al., not Lemke et al. (LLM, conf=0.81)

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Authors
Lemke, N. B., Rollison, L. N., & Tomberlin, J. K.
Affiliations
  • Texas A&M University (US)
  • Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 HEEP, College Station, TX 77843, USA
Corresponding author
Lemke, Noah B.
ORCID
Venue
Insects
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-10-05
Volume
15
Issue
10
Pages
770
ISSN
2075-4450 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/insects15100770
PMC
PMC11508282
OpenAlex
W4403190513
Cited by
8
References
90
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 6
FWCI
2.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Insects (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (1746932)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect Utilization and Effects
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect behavior and control techniques
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurobiology and Insect Physiology Research
Keywords
Hermetia illucens, perching, artificial perches, artificial plants, mass rearing, mating behavior, ultraviolet radiation, diel activity patterns, Stratiomyidae

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