Relationship of the Frequency, Distribution, and Content of Meals/Snacks to Glycaemic Control in Gestational Diabetes: The myfood24 GDM Pilot Study
Open accessAbstract
This study examines nutritional intakes in Gestational diabetes mellitus piloting the myfood24 tool, to explore frequency of meals/snacks, and daily distribution of calories and carbohydrates in relation to glycaemic control. A total of 200 women aged 20–43 years were recruited into this prospective observational study between February 2015 and February 2016. Diet was assessed using myfood24, a novel online 24-h dietary recall tool. Out of 200 women 102 completed both ≥1 dietary recalls and all blood glucose measurements. Blood glucose was self-measured as part of usual care. Differences between groups meeting and exceeding glucose targets in relation to frequency of meal/snack consumption and nutrients were assessed using chi-squared and Mann–Whitney tests. Women achieving a fasting glucose target <5.3 mmol/L, compared to those exceeding it, consumed three meals (92% vs. 78%: p = 0.04) and three snacks (10% vs. 4%: p = 0.06) per day, compared with two or less; and in relation to evening snacks, consumed a higher percentage of daily energy (6% vs. 5%: p = 0.03) and carbohydrates (8% vs. 6%: p = 0.01). Achieving glycaemic control throughout the day was positively associated with snacking (p = 0.008). Achieving glucose targets was associated with having more snacks across the day, and may be associated with frequency and distribution of meals and nutrients. A larger study is required to confirm this.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In a prospective observational study using the 24 h online diet and glycemic tool "Myfood24 GDM", better glycemic control was demonstrated with more frequent meals.
“In a prospective observational study using the 24 h online diet and glycemic tool (“Myfood24 GDM”), better glycemic control was demonstrated with more frequent meals [75].”
From Gestational Diabetes Mellitus—Recent Literature Review (2022) · cites this paper as [75]
Results §3.2 reports that women meeting the fasting glucose target were more likely to eat three meals rather than fewer (92% vs. 78%; p = 0.04). But the paper’s stated significance threshold was p < 0.01, and its clearer association with control throughout the day concerned snacking, not meal frequency. The claim overstates the evidence for better overall glycaemic control with more frequent meals. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Self-monitoring in weight loss: a systematic review of the literature
Burke, L. E., Wang, J., & Sevick, M. A. (2011) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.10.008 · Cited by 1,203 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Dietary self-monitoring is consistently associated with supporting weight loss [24].”
Background(1998) · PubMed · Cited by 992 · see citing works
Torloni, M. R., Betrán, A. P., Horta, B. L., Nakamura, M. U., Atallah, A. N., Moron, A. F., & Valente, O. (2009) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2008.00541.x · Cited by 739 · see citing works
Diet or exercise, or both, for preventing excessive weight gain in pregnancy
Muktabhant, B., Lawrie, T. A., Lumbiganon, P., & Laopaiboon, M. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007145.pub3 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Diabetes and Pregnancy: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline
Blumer, I., Hadar, E., Hadden, D. R., Jovanovič, L., Mestman, J. H., Murad, M. H., & Yogev, Y. (2013) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2465 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
Roberts, C., Steer, T. E., Maplethorpe, N., Cox, L., Meadows, S. O., Nicholson, S. K., Page, P., & Swan, G. (2018) · Digital Education Resource Archive (University College London) · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Yamamoto, J. M., Kellett, J. E., Balsells, M., García-Patterson, A., Hadar, E., Solà, I., Gich, I., van der Beek, E. M., Castañeda-Gutiérrez, E., Heinonen, S., et al. (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc18-0102 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes
Brown, J., Alwan, N. A., West, J., Brown, S., McKinlay, C. J., Farrar, D., & Crowther, C. A. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011970.pub2 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Self-citationDiet and exercise interventions for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus
Bain, E., Crane, M., Tieu, J., Han, S., Crowther, C. A., & Middleton, P. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010443.pub2 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Viana, L. V., Gross, J. L., & Azevedo, M. J. (2014) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc14-1530 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus
Han, S., Middleton, P., Shepherd, E. S., Ryswyk, E. V., & Crowther, C. A. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009275.pub3 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Gestational diabetes: risk factors and recent advances in its genetics and treatment
Petry, C. J. (2010) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114510001741 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Development of a UK Online 24-h Dietary Assessment Tool: myfood24
Carter, M. C., Albar, S. A., Morris, M. A., Mulla, U. Z., Hancock, N., Evans, C. E. L., Alwan, N. A., Greenwood, D. C., Hardie, L. J., Frost, G. S., et al. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7064016 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationMetabolic Syndrome Risk after Gestational Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Xu, Y., Shen, S., Sun, L., Yang, H., Jin, B., & Cao, X. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087863 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Hernandez, T. L., Van Pelt, R. E., Anderson, M. A., Daniels, L. J., West, N. A., Donahoo, W. T., Friedman, J. E., & Barbour, L. A. (2014) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc13-2411 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Dietary advice interventions in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus
Tieu, J., Shepherd, E. S., Middleton, P., & Crowther, C. A. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006674.pub3 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Wark, P. A., Hardie, L. J., Frost, G. S., Alwan, N. A., Carter, M. C., Elliott, P., Ford, H. E., Hancock, N., Morris, M. A., Mulla, U. Z., et al. (2018) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-018-1113-8 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationPathophysiology of postprandial hyperglycaemia in women with type 1 diabetes during pregnancy
Murphy, H. R., Elleri, D., Allen, J. M., Harris, J. R., Simmons, D. S., Rayman, G. A., Temple, R., Umpleby, A. M., Dunger, D. B., Haidar, A., et al. (2011) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-011-2363-6 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Simmons, D., Jelsma, J. G. M., Galjaard, S., Devlieger, R., van Assche, A., Jans, G., Corcoy, R., Adelantado, J. M., Dunne, F., Desoye, G., et al. (2015) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc15-0360 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Weight gain adequacy and pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes: a meta‐analysis
Viecceli, C., Remonti, L. R., Hirakata, V. N., Mastella, L. S., Gnielka, V., Oppermann, M. L. R., Silveiro, S. P., & Reichelt, A. J. (2017) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12521 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Strategies for improving glycemic control: effective use of glucose monitoring
Davidson, J. A. (2005) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.054 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Quinlivan, J. A., Julania, S., & Lam, L. T.-M. (2011) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0b013e3182396bc6 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Primary prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus through nutritional factors: a systematic review
Donazar-Ezcurra, M., del Burgo, C. L., & Bes‐Rastrollo, M. (2017) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-016-1205-4 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Albar, S. A., Alwan, N. A., Evans, C., Greenwood, D. C., & Cade, J. E. (2016) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114516000593 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationWei, J., Heng, W., & Gao, J. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000003792 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Carter, M. C., Burley, V. J., & Cade, J. E. (2017) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/mhealth.4520 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationMurakami, K., & Livingstone, M. B. E. (2016) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114516003573 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Albar, S. A., Carter, M. C., Alwan, N. A., Evans, C. E. L., & Cade, J. E. (2015) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-015-0016-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationFadl, H., Gärdefors, S., Hjertberg, R., Nord, E., Persson, B., Schwarcz, E., Åman, J., Östlund, I., & Hanson, U. (2015) · Acta Obstetricia Et Gynecologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/aogs.12717 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Nutritional Intake of Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Lim, S., Yoo, H., Kim, A.-L., Oh, J.-A., Kim, H., Choi, Y., Cho, J., Lee, J. H., & Yoon, K. (2013) · Clinical Nutrition Research · doi:10.7762/cnr.2013.2.2.81 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Hunt, K. F., Whitelaw, B., & Gayle, C. (2014) · Obstetrics Gynaecology & Reproductive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ogrm.2014.05.005 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The controversy continues: Nutritional management of the pregnancy complicated by diabetes
Uplinger, N. (2009) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-009-0045-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ainscough, K. M., Kennelly, M. A., Lindsay, K. L., O’Brien, E. C., O’Sullivan, E. J., Mehegan, J., Gibney, E. R., & McAuliffe, F. M. (2019) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-019-02099-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus—Recent Literature Review
Modzelewski, R., Stefanowicz-Rutkowska, M. M., Matuszewski, W., & Bandurska-Stankiewicz, E. M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11195736 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Snacking patterns throughout the life span: potential implications on health
Almoraie, N. M., Saqaan, R., alharthi, R. H., Al-Amoudi, A. A., Badh, L., & Shatwan, I. M. (2021) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2021.05.001 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Al‐Rashed, F., Sindhu, S. T. A. K., Madhoun, A. S. A., Alghaith, A., Azim, R., Al‐Mulla, F., & Ahmad, R. (2021) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s311415 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Calming the Storm: Natural Immunosuppressants as Adjuvants to Target the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19
Peter, A. E., Sandeep, B. V., Rao, B. G., & Kalpana, V. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.583777 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
A Bidirectional View of Migraine and Diet Relationship
Gazerani, P. (2021) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s282565 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Garzón, M. A. G., Uribe, D., Gallego, V., Bedoya, C., & Arango-Varela, S. S. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07738 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Wood, B., Williams, O. D., Baker, P., Nagarajan, V., & Sacks, G. (2021) · Globalization and Health · doi:10.1186/s12992-021-00688-2 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Koch, S., Conrad, J., Cade, J. E., Weinhold, L., Alexy, U., & Nöthlings, U. (2021) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-021-02547-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, F., He, S., Yan, J., Yan, S., Chen, J., Lu, Z., Zhang, B., & Lane, J. A. (2021) · International Journal of Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1111/ijfs.15324 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Machairiotis, N., Vasilakaki, S., Minns, L., & Malakasis, A. (2021) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/ijcp.14033 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Shao, W., Kühn, C., Mayr, D. C., Ditsch, N. C., Kailuwait, M., Wolf, V., Harbeck, N., Mahner, S., Jeschke, U., Cavaillès, V., et al. (2021) · Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1007/s00432-021-03670-y · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Mao, G., Zheng, Y., Lin, S., Ma, L., Zhou, Z., & Zhang, S. (2021) · International Journal of General Medicine · doi:10.2147/ijgm.s343948 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Soy Flour-Based Snack Bar as Potential Snack Alternative for Diabetes Mellitus
Nurdin, N. M., Navratilova, H. F., Ekawidyani, K. R., Pratiwi, D., & Kurniawan, M. Y. (2020) · Jurnal Gizi dan Pangan · doi:10.25182/jgp.2020.15.3.125-132 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Wang, X., Ye, M., Gu, Y., Wu, X., Meng, G., Bian, S., Wu, H., Zhang, S., Wang, Y., Zhang, T., et al. (2021) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521003871 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Chrononutrition in Gestational Diabetes: Toward Precision Timing in Maternal Care
Xega, V., & Liu, J. (2025) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm15110534 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Vegan and gluten-free granola bar production with pumpkin
MANGULDAR, F., DERYA, B., BALBİNAR, S., ÇAKIR, Ş., İçyer, N. C., ÇAYIR, M., Toker, Ö. S., & ŞENTÜRK, B. (2022) · European Food Science and Engineering · doi:10.55147/efse.1166320 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Gică, N., & Huluță, I. (2023) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1002793 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Gestational Diabetes: A Review
Barbach, A., Chenguiti, A. A., Charrah, Y., & Barkat, A. (2023) · Biomedical & Pharmacology Journal · doi:10.13005/bpj/2649 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Timing of eating and glycemic control during pregnancy: A systematic review
Boege, H. L., Park, C., Gagnier, R., & Deierlein, A. L. (2025) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2025.104094 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Șerban, C. L., Banu, A., Putnoky, S., Butica, S. I., Niculescu, M. D., & Putnoky, S. (2021) · Nutrition and Dietary Supplements · doi:10.2147/nds.s310260 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fully hydrogenated canola oil extends lifespan in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats
Tatematsu, K., Miyazawa, D., Saito, Y., Okuyama, H., & Ohara, N. (2021) · Lipids in Health and Disease · doi:10.1186/s12944-021-01540-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Guo, H. P., Zhao, A., Xue, Y., Ma, L. K., Zhang, Y. M., & Wang, P. Y. (2021) · PubMed Central · doi:10.19723/j.issn.1671-167x.2021.03.005 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Smith, R., Borg, R., Wong, V., Russell, H., & Mak, M. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17030400 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chapter 9: Selenium and immunity
Surai, P. F. (2021) · Wageningen Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-912-1_9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dingena, C. F., Mahendra, A., Holmes, M. J., Clement, N. S., SCOTT, E. M., & Zulyniak, M. A. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-065388
Self-citationPavić, E., Rahelić, V., Reiner, Ž., Bender, D. V., Vrdoljak, I., Martinis, I., Mesarić, N., Majanović, S. K., Baretić, M., Canecki-Varžić, S., et al. (2023) · Liječnički vjesnik · doi:10.26800/lv-145-3-4-1
Righton, O., George, C. M., O’Hara, C., Kent, G., Poston, L., Hall, W. L., Flynn, A. C., & White, S. L. (2025) · Maternal and Child Nutrition · doi:10.1111/mcn.70079
Palatnik, A., Balza, J. S., Akinola, I. M., Yee, L. M., Peterson, Z., & Flynn, K. E. (2026) · American Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1055/a-2852-4893
Imai, S., Kajiyama, S., Higuchi, Y., Kajiyama, S., Hashimoto, Y., & Fukui, M. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18162665
Suder, L., Kampmann, U., Berghella, V., Poulsen, C. W., & Fuglsang, J. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13265-0.00024-0
- Authors
- Morris, M. A., Hutchinson, J., Gianfrancesco, C., Alwan, N. A., Carter, M. C., Scott, E. M., & Cade, J. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Morris, Michelle A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-12-18
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7019496
- OpenAlex
- W2996455392
- Cited by
- 30
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 5.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NIHR Clinical Research Network (.)
- Medical Research Council (G1100235)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Gestational Diabetes Research and Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- gestational diabetes mellitus, glycemic control, meal frequency, snacking, dietary intake, 24-hour dietary recall, glycemic targets, carbohydrate allocation, energy distribution
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blood Glucose, Energy Intake, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Pilot Projects, Pregnancy, Prospective Studies, Nutrition Assessment, Diabetes, Gestational, Young Adult, Meals, Snacks
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
