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Cited by 26Gestational Diabetes Research and ManagementBirth, Development, and HealthPregnancy and preeclampsia studies

Impact of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus on Fetal Growth and Nutritional Status in Newborns

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Karcz, Karolina, Królak-Olejnik, Barbara·2024·Nutrients
DOI 10.3390/nu16234093PMC PMC11643953
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Abstract

Background: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is one of the most prevalent complications associated with pregnancy, exhibiting a gradual rise in prevalence worldwide. Given the potential for numerous short- and long-term complications for both mother and child, patients diagnosed with GDM require individualised treatment to compensate for metabolic abnormalities and ultimately reduce the risk of the known adverse consequences of impaired glucose tolerance. Methods and results: The manuscript presents a summary of the current knowledge on changes in maternal metabolism during physiological pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by gestational diabetes. Furthermore, the article provides a synthesis of the findings from recent research examining the impacts of gestational diabetes and the therapeutic modalities employed on the nutritional status of the fetus and neonate. Additionally, the review elucidates the function of the placenta and placental hormones in fetal development, as well as the impact of hyperglycemia, insulin resistance and adipokines on fetal and neonatal nutritional programming and predisposition to metabolic complications in adulthood. Conclusions: The metabolic environment, resulting from abnormal glucose tolerance during pregnancy, exerts a particularly significant impact on fetal growth and, consequently, on the birth weight and fat mass of the newborn infants. This is a pivotal factor influencing the nutritional and metabolic programming of the developing fetus, predisposing the individual to the development of metabolic complications throughout their lifetime.

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  • In utero exposure to maternal hyperglycemia leads to excessive fetal growth that is already present at the first diagnosis of GDM.

    “Recent research demonstrates that in utero exposure to maternal hyperglycemia leads to excessive fetal growth that is already present at the first diagnosis of GDM, which is made through a screening test from the 24th week of gestation.”

    From Maternal Overnutrition and Fetal Programming: Long-Term Metabolic, Cognitive, and Epigenetic Consequences (2026) · cites this paper as [30]

    Section 3 states that maternal hyperglycemia causes excessive fetal growth, and Section 8 reports a greater fetal growth rate in women with GDM during the third trimester. Neither passage establishes that excessive growth is already present when GDM is first diagnosed; the cited paper therefore supports the growth mechanism but not the claim’s timing. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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  • Obstetric and neonatal complications related to GDM are caused by elevated birth weight, which is a risk factor for the long-term health of the newborn.

    “Obstetric and neonatal complications related to GDM are caused by elevated birth weight, which represents a risk factor for the long-term health of the newborn.”

    From Maternal Overnutrition and Fetal Programming: Long-Term Metabolic, Cognitive, and Epigenetic Consequences (2026) · cites this paper as [30]

    The Introduction attributes the majority of the listed complications to fetal overnutrition and macrosomia, not all complications solely to elevated birth weight. Section 8 links macrosomia to greater childhood obesity risk, supporting the long-term risk point, while also identifying other influences on offspring health. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Maternal hyperglycemia has a durable negative impact on childhood and adolescent metabolism, making GDM a main contributor to intergenerational cardiometabolic diseases.

    “It is also demonstrated that maternal hyperglycemia has a durable negative impact on childhood and adolescent metabolism, rendering GDM one of the main contributors to the spread of intergenerational cardiometabolic diseases [30].”

    From Maternal Overnutrition and Fetal Programming: Long-Term Metabolic, Cognitive, and Epigenetic Consequences (2026) · cites this paper as [30]

    Section 8 reports that offspring of mothers with GDM have elevated risks of metabolic disorders in childhood, adolescence, and later life, and links those risks partly to exposure to maternal hyperglycemia. It does not establish that GDM is one of the main contributors to the population-level spread of intergenerational cardiometabolic disease; it also identifies genetic, lifestyle, and other influences. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Authors
Karcz, K., & Królak-Olejnik, B.
Affiliations
  • Wroclaw Medical University (PL)
  • Department of Neonatology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-367 Wrocław, Poland
Corresponding author
Karcz, Karolina
ORCID
Venue
Nutrients
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-11-27
Volume
16
Issue
23
Pages
4093
ISSN
2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/nu16234093
PMC
PMC11643953
OpenAlex
W4404755603
Cited by
25
References
74
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 13
FWCI
2.32
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
Wroclaw Medical University (SUBK.A300.23.024)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Gestational Diabetes Research and Management
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Pregnancy and preeclampsia studies
Keywords
gestational diabetes mellitus, fetal growth, neonatal nutritional status, birth weight, fetal programming, placental hormones, placenta, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, adipokines, metabolic programming, maternal metabolism
MeSH terms
Birth Weight, Female, Humans, Infant, Newborn, Insulin Resistance, Nutritional Status, Placenta, Pregnancy, Diabetes, Gestational, Fetal Development

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