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Cited by 5Biblical Studies and InterpretationTheological Perspectives and PracticesReligion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity

Slavery, the Hebrew Bible and the Development of Racial Theories in the Nineteenth Century

Open access
Burrell, Kevin·2021·Religions
DOI 10.3390/rel12090742
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Abstract

Racial ideas which developed in the modern west were forged with reference to a Christian worldview and informed by the Bible, particularly the Old Testament. Up until Darwin’s scientific reframing of the origins debate, European and American race scientists were fundamentally Christian in their orientation. This paper outlines how interpretations of the Hebrew Bible within this Christian Weltanschauung facilitated the development and articulation of racial theories which burgeoned in western intellectual discourse up to and during the 19th century. The book of Genesis was a particular seedbed for identity politics as the origin stories of the Hebrew Bible were plundered in service of articulating a racial hierarchy which justified both the place of Europeans at the pinnacle of divine creation and the denigration, bestialization, and enslavement of Africans as the worst of human filiation. That the racial ethos of the period dictated both the questions exegetes posed and the conclusions they derived from the text demonstrates that biblical interpretation within this climate was never an innocuous pursuit, but rather reflected the values and beliefs current in the social context of the exegete.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This article argues that modern racial theories in the North Atlantic were forged within a Christian worldview and informed by Hebrew Bible interpretation, especially Genesis. It shows how monogenist and polygenist exegesis, including the curse of Ham and pre-Adamism, provided moral-theological and purportedly scientific justification for black inferiority and slavery.

Key findings

  • Nineteenth-century race science was not simply secular: monogenists and polygenists alike argued from sacred anthropology, with Genesis origin stories used to place Europeans at the top and Africans at the bottom.
  • Monogenists explained blackness as climatic degeneration from an original white Adam/Noah, while polygenists, especially the American School, argued for separate creations; Samuel Morton’s craniometry and Nott and Gliddon’s 800-page *Types of Mankind* (1854; eighth edition by 1860) helped turn polygenesis from heresy into orthodoxy.
  • The Hamitic myth shifted from medieval associations of Ham with Jews/idolatry to nineteenth-century blackness and slavery, then was revised by American polygenists who made ancient Egyptians and Cushites white and removed Negroes from Genesis genealogies.
  • Pre-Adamism later replaced Ham’s curse with figures such as Cain, the Nephilim, or the *nachash* to bestialize Africans and oppose miscegenation, especially after emancipation of some four million black people.

Methods

  • Historical and theological synthesis/interpretive essay, not an empirical study; it analyzes published primary sources and secondary scholarship from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries.
  • Sources discussed include works by Blumenbach, Morton, Agassiz, Nott and Gliddon, Hopkins, Priest, Newton, and later writers such as Sayce, Petrie, and Seligman.
  • Main analysis is textual, exegetical, and historiographical, tracing how interpretations of Genesis were shaped by and served racial and proslavery agendas.

Limitations

  • No limitations section is stated in the paper.
  • Evident from the text: the study is selective and North Atlantic/Christian-focused, centered on Genesis and a set of race scientists and clergy; it does not claim comprehensive global coverage or systematic quantitative analysis.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/rel12090742

Cites

35 of 35 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 85 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Nott and Gliddon produced visual aids such as maps and sketches to show close associations between the Negro and the ape.

    “To further bolster their claim of black inferiority, they produced a significant number of visual aids such as maps and sketches to show the close associations between the Negro and the ape (see Figure 1 for one such example).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Once American polygenism took root in the second half of the nineteenth century, a host of theological works on preadamism appeared.

    “Furthermore, once American polygenism took root in the second half of the nineteenth century, a host of theological works on preadamism began to appear, including the 1860 publication of Isabelle Dunkan's Pre-Adamite man: or the story of our old planet and its inhabitants as told by scripture and science; Paschal B. Randolph's Pre-Adamite Man: Demonstrating the Existence of the Human Race in 1863;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    By the nineteenth century, literature propounding the blackness of Ham was voluminous.

    “By the nineteenth century, the literature propounding the blackness of Ham was voluminous.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § 2. The Monogenism-Polygenism Debate

    The discovery of greater human diversity seemed to defy the tripartite racial taxonomy of Shemites, Hamites, and Japhites deduced from the Mosaic record.

    “The discovery of greater and greater human diversity seemed to defy the tripartite racial taxonomy of Shemites, Hamites, and Japhites deduced from the Mosaic record (Kidd 2006;Livingstone 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source
    • cites Livingstone 2010 source
  • Premisereasoning
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    Advocates of multiple origins, particularly the naturalists of the American School of Anthropology, marshaled arguments from craniology, phrenology, zoology, geology, archaeology, and even scripture to buttress their views of separate and distinct creations.

    “Advocates of multiple origins, particularly the naturalists of the American School of Anthropology, would marshal ever more sophisticated arguments from craniology, phrenology, zoology, geology, archaeology, and even from scripture to buttress their views of separate and distinct creations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 38
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Southern states embraced scientific arguments for racial inferiority and provided generous financial support for such research.

    “unequivocal endorsements, little wonder southern states embraced these”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § 4. The Bible and Slavery

    Not everyone in nineteenth-century America who agreed with innate black inferiority supported slavery; some racist proponents were staunchly opposed to slavery.

    “It is to be noted, however, that not everyone in nineteenth century America who agreed with the notion of innate black inferiority was a supporter of slavery.Indeed, some proponents of otherwise overtly racist views of Africans were staunchly opposed to slavery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    Newton corrected Genesis 9:25 to place the curse on Ham instead of Canaan and affirmed the curse's fulfillment in the enslavement of Africans.

    “Exegetically manipulating the text, Newton”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Newton [1754] 1832

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    Subsequent to Newton, theologians of all stripes affirmed his exegetical conclusions and associated black skin color with the curse of Noah.

    “Subsequent to Newton, theologians of all stripes affirmed his exegetical conclusions, and were not in the least hesitant in associating black skin color with the curse of Noah.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    The American School challenged the ecclesiastical position that Ham was cursed with black skin and sought to reclaim Ham for the white race.

    “The American School launched a sustained challenge to the long-established ecclesiastical position popular among monogenists that Ham was cursed with black skin, and they set about to reclaim Ham for the white race.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    The basic polygenic argument of Nott and Gliddon (and the American School generally) was that nature had permanently fixed the Negro's place, as it did for all other races, and hence any attempt to alter what was fixed was misguided.

    “The basic polygenic arguments of Nott and Gliddon (and the American School generally) was that nature had permanently fixed the Negro's place, as it did for all other races, and hence any attempt to alter what was fixed by supposing the inferior types could change their station was misguided.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Nott and Gliddon asserted that the monuments of ancient Egypt proved beyond reasonable doubt that differentiated types of mankind were as old as creation itself.

    “The monuments of ancient Egypt, they asserted, proved beyond any reasonable doubt that differentiated types of mankind were as old as creation itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nott and Gliddon 1854

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4. The Bible and Slavery

    Defenders of slavery used biblical accounts of slave regulations in the Pentateuch and New Testament examples.

    “Defenders of the institution wielded biblical accounts of slave regulations found in the Pentateuch, and even drew upon New Testament examples for the same purpose (Kidd 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Up until Darwin's scientific reframing of the origins debate, European and American race scientists were fundamentally Christian in their orientation.

    “Up until Darwin's scientific reframing of the origins debate, European and American race scientists were fundamentally Christian in their orientation.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
      “Up until Darwin's scientific reframing of the origins debate, European and American race scientists were fundamentally Christian in their orientation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    La Peyrère's heresy was condemned and refuted, but his preadamite theory lived on until its flowering in the middle decades of the nineteenth century.

    “Though La Peyrère's heresy was summarily condemned and vigorously refuted in the subsequent centuries, his preadamite theory would live on, being variously picked up by adherents until its flowering in the middle decades of the nineteenth century (Kidd 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Morton established the skulls of Europeans to be, by every measure, the largest in size, cranial capacity, and facial angle, and those of Negroes to be the smallest by the same measures.

    “Morton nonetheless had established the skulls of Europeans to be, by every measure, the largest in size, cranial capacity, and facial angle, and those of Negroes to be the smallest by the same measures (Livingstone 2008;Dain 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dain 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    Although Darwinian evolution changed the origins debate, nineteenth-century Christians appealed increasingly to polygenetic arguments in support of virulent racial bigotry.

    “Although Darwinian evolution in time would permanently change the course of the origins debate, nineteenth century Christians would appeal increasingly to polygenetic arguments in support of virulent racial bigotry (Livingstone 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    For Morton, the Genesis creation story represented only one branch of the human race-the Adamic branch-while omitting specific mention of the others.

    “For Morton, the Genesis creation story represented only one branch of the human race-the Adamic branch-while omitting specific mention of the others (Stanton 1960).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stanton 1960

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Polygenism first appeared in seventeenth-century Europe, but it achieved its greatest influence in the United States among the American School of Ethnology.

    “Though Polygenism first appeared in seventeenth century Europe, it was in the United States among the anthropologists, biologists, archaeologists, geologists, and other natural scientists of the formidable American School of Ethnology that it would achieve its greatest influence (Stanton 1960;Gould [1981Gould [ ] 1996)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stanton 1960

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gould [1981] 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 2.1. Monogenism and the Racial Order

    Blumenbach's aesthetic racial schematization was adopted far and wide and helped to cement the color-coded racial hierarchy in European and American consciousness.

    “Blumenbach's aesthetic racial schematization was adopted far and wide and helped to cement the color-coded racial hierarchy in European and American consciousness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    In time, Peyrère's Adam became the father of the Caucasian race, and his preadamites the progenitors of the black races.

    “In time, Peyrère's Adam would become the father of the Caucasian race (and in some iterations to the exclusion of the Jews!), and his preadamites the progenitors of the black races.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.1. Monogenism and the Racial Order

    In the monogenist view, skin color, like other physical variation, was externally induced, superficial, and the product of climatic adaptation.

    “In their view, skin color, like other physical variation, was externally induced, superficial, and the product of climatic adaptation (Livingstone 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1. Introduction

    Genesis origin stories were used to exclude Africans from the Genesis genealogies altogether.

    “In particular, I seek to show how the primeval account of Genesis served as a seedbed for identity politics as its origin stories were plundered in service of articulating a racial ideology which vilified or bestialized blackness, and even sought to exclude Africans from the Genesis genealogies altogether.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    In Crania Americana and Crania Ægyptiaca, Morton advocated the permanent and immutable inferiority of the American Indian and the Negro, respectively.

    “In his Crania Americana (1839) and his Crania Ægyptiaca (1844), Morton advocated the permanent and immutable inferiority of the American Indian and the Negro, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.1. Monogenism and the Racial Order

    In Blumenbach's aesthetic evaluation, the Caucasian takes pride of place for both the symmetry of the skull and the beauty of white skin color.

    “In Blumenbach's aesthetic evaluation the Caucasian takes pride of place for both the symmetry of the skull as well as for the beauty of white skin color (Painter 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Painter 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2. The Monogenism-Polygenism Debate

    Polygenism proposed multiple origins as the best solution to human diversity.

    “Polygenism, on the other hand, proposed multiple origins as the best solution to human diversity, but its exponents would lurk in the shadows for centuries, as few had the temerity to openly advocate views which were seen as heretical and subversive to Christian orthodoxy (Livingstone 1992(Livingstone , 2008)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 1992 source
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § 2.1. Monogenism and the Racial Order

    The defense of human unity by monogenists was not born out of altruistic concern for the Negro; it was the greater interest to uphold scriptural authority that compelled monogenists to view humanity as a brotherhood.

    “The defense of human unity by monogenists was not born out of altruistic concern for the Negro, however; it was the greater interest to uphold scriptural authority that compelled monogenists to view humanity as a brotherhood (Kidd 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4. The Bible and Slavery

    The Bible became a tool in the defense of slavery, especially from the sixteenth century when Europeans introduced color-based slavery.

    “The Bible itself became a tool in the defense of slavery, especially from the sixteenth century when”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzolini 2014 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Nott and Gliddon wrote that the Negroes must remain substantially in the same benighted state wherein Nature has placed them and in which they have stood for at least 5000 years.

    “Consequently, [I]t would seem that the Negroes . . .must remain substantially in the same benighted state wherein Nature has placed them and in which they have stood, according to Egyptian monuments, for at least 5000 years.(Nott and Gliddon 1854, p. 189)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nott and Gliddon 1854

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 1. Introduction

    Race is a modern cultural construct with a religious foundation.

    “Thus, rightly classed, race is a modern cultural construct with a religious foundation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    Polygenists advanced the idea of separate and distinct creations as the cause for the striking distinctions in human appearance.

    “They advanced the idea of separate and distinct creations as the cause for the striking distinctions in human appearance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 1. Introduction

    Christian theology was the progenitor of the modern concept of race.

    “For the fact that Christianity and modernity are inextricably linked, Kidd identifies Christian theology as the progenitor of the modern concept of race.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2. The Monogenism-Polygenism Debate

    Monogenism maintained that all mankind had descended from a single set of ancestors roughly four thousand years ago.

    “Monogenism, the established orthodoxy on human origins, maintained that all mankind had descended from a single set of ancestors roughly four thousand years ago.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Drawing on ancient Egyptian art and iconography, Nott and Gliddon sought to prove that not only biblical chronology but also biblical anthropology was inaccurate.

    “Drawing on ancient Egyptian art and iconography, they sought to prove that not only biblical chronology, but also biblical anthropology was inaccurate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    Polygenists advanced inherent and permanent biological differences as the explanation for human variation.

    “Inherent and permanent biological differences best explained human variation, they averred.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Nott and Gliddon's agenda was unapologetically pro-slavery, anti-clerical, and political.

    “Nott and Gliddon's agenda was unapologetically pro-slavery, anti-clerical, and political (Gossett 1997;Dain 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gossett 1997 source
    • cites Dain 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2. Polygenism and the Racial Order

    La Peyrère argued that Adam was not the first man to be created; he was merely the father of the Jews.

    “Radically departing from established orthodoxy, La Peyrère argued that Adam was not the first man to be created; he was merely the father of the Jews.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Popkin 1974a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Livingstone 1992 source
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.1. Monogenism and the Racial Order

    For Blumenbach, Adam and Noah were white, and their best present-day representation were Europeans, specifically the people of the Caucasus region.

    “For Blumenbach, not only were Adam and Noah white, but their best present-day representation were Europeans, specifically the people of the Caucasus region who were reputed for their beauty (Gould [1981(Gould [ ] 1996;;Baum 2006;Painter 2010;Figal 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gould [1981] 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Baum 2006 source
    • cites Painter 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1. Introduction

    The primeval account of Genesis served as a seedbed for identity politics as its origin stories were plundered in service of articulating a racial ideology which vilified or bestialized blackness.

    “In particular, I seek to show how the primeval account of Genesis served as a seedbed for identity politics as its origin stories were plundered in service of articulating a racial ideology which vilified or bestialized blackness, and even sought to exclude Africans from the Genesis genealogies altogether.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Nott and Gliddon vigorously championed the polygenic origin of mankind, the denigration of the black race, and the view that Genesis (albeit allegorical) was solely about the history of the white race.

    “Decidedly more anti-clerical than Agassiz their friend and colleague, Morton's two most ardent disciples, the physician Josiah C. Nott (1804-1873) and the Egyptologist George R. Gliddon (1809-1857) vigorously championed the polygenic origin of mankind, the denigration of the black race, and the view that Genesis (albeit allegorical) was solely about the history of the white race.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. The Formidable Influence of American Polygeny

    Slavery was economically entangled with modern industry, and this entanglement permitted slavery's perpetuation.

    “Along the same lines, several scholars have shown the connection between slavery and the growth of modern industry-from the Industrial Revolution to capitalist enterprises in Europe and America-suggesting that it was this web of economic entanglement which permitted the perpetuation of slavery for as long as it did (Williams 1966;Baptist 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Williams 1966

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Baptist 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Black preadamites could appear as the cursed Cain and his progeny, the fallen Nephilim of Genesis 6, the nachash, or cursed Nimrod.

    “Black preadamites could appear as the cursed Cain and his progeny, or the fallen, miscegenating Nephilim of Genesis 6; and even stranger yet, the nachash-the crafty serpent that engaged in miscegenetic sexual temptation with Eve (Kidd 2006;Livingstone 2008;Stokes 1998).The cursed Ham was now replaced by the cursed nachash, or the cursed Cain, or the Cursed Nephilim, or even cursed Nimrod-the exege”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kidd 2006 source
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Stokes 1998 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Morton claimed ancient Ethiopians had no affinity to the Negro race and the valley of the Nile was originally peopled by a branch of the Caucasian race.

    “Morton too had claimed that the ancient Ethiopians had”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morton 1844

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. Conclusions

    Interpretations of the Bible are often commentary on the values and commitments of the wider society, as shown by the gross misappropriation of the foundation book of Judaism and Christianity in service of racial hatred and identity politics.

    “That the foundation book of Judaism and Christianity could be so grossly misappropriated in the service of racial hatred and identity politics, shows that far from being an innocuous exercise, interpretations of the Bible are often commentary on the values and commitments of the wider society.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    The new field of Egyptology revealed ancient Egypt to be a highly sophisticated civilization, which many believed was the forerunner of western civilization.

    “Another significant point impinging upon Ham's blackness had to do with the fact that the new field of Egyptology was revealing ancient Egypt to be a highly sophisticated civilization; one which many believed at the time was the forerunner of western civilization (Young 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Young 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. Conclusions

    This pattern was true in nineteenth-century racial politics and remains true in twenty-first-century racial politics.

    “This was true in nineteenth century racial politics, and it remains true in twenty-first century racial politics-if the recent and ongoing racial reckoning is any indication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Preadamite advocates assaulted Genesis origin stories to bestialize blacks, demonstrate black inferiority, and disparage miscegenation between blacks and whites in view of an emancipated black population of about four million.

    “Preadamite advocates assaulted the Genesis origin stories with abandon in order to bestialize blacks and demonstrate black inferiority, and especially to disparage miscegenation between blacks and whites in view of the new reality of an emancipated black population of some four million (Livingstone 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    The power of pre-adamism served race hatred and gross racial abuse, acquired a considerable following in the second half of the nineteenth century, and aimed to bestialize the African and warrant blood purity.

    “As Livingstone (2008) writes,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Livingstone 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    Thomas Newton's Dissertation on the Prophecies was one of the most important defenses of the Curse of Ham and influenced later promulgation of the myth in many publications.

    “In 1754, the English Bishop Thomas Newton (1704-1782) penned”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Whitford 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Nott and Gliddon affirmed that the author of Genesis omits Negro races from the tripartite classification of Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

    “Taking their exegesis to its logical conclusion, Nott and Gliddon affirmed, as did Morton and Agassiz, that the author of Genesis”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nott and Gliddon 1854

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    The myth of Ham's blackness was a formidable obstacle to Nott and Gliddon's agenda, so they sought to demonstrate that the biblical text bore no evidence of Ham's curse.

    “However, the myth of Ham's blackness stood as a formidable obstacle to their agenda.They decided to attack the problem at the source: they would demonstrate that the biblical text bore no such evidence of Ham's curse.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Because the curse of Ham was predicated on all Hamites including ancient Egyptians being black and incapable of high civilization, there was urgency to make Egypt white.

    “However, because the curse of Ham was predicated on the idea that all Hamites, including the ancient Egyptians, were black-and therefore incapable of high civilization-there was a particular urgency to set the record straight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Young 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    The shift to Ham as Black was born out of a need to justify slavery in antebellum America and was specifically the result of concerted exegetical maneuverings.

    “This shift was certainly born out of a need to justify slavery in antebellum America, but it was also specifically the result of concerted exegetical maneuverings of the biblical story.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 4.1. The Hamitic Hypothesis

    The Curse of Ham was nearly universally defended by Southern clergy and underwent a radical metamorphosis in the latter half of the nineteenth century through Nott and Gliddon.

    “Though nearly universally defended by Southern clergy, the Curse of Ham would undergo yet another radical metamorphosis in the latter half of the nineteenth century, thanks to the restless efforts of the two firebrands of the American School.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.2. The New Hamitic Myth

    Nott and Gliddon claimed that Negro races are never alluded to in ancient Jewish literature and that Ethiopia was a false interpretation of Hebrew KUSh, which means Southern Arabia and the Cushite-Arabian race.

    “Not only are Negroes never mentioned in the Pentateuch, but they would further claim that”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nott and Gliddon 1854

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 5. Conclusions

    The monogenism-polygenism dialectic and interpretations of the foundation stories of the Hebrew scriptures left an indelible stamp on man's most dangerous myth.

    “To be sure, the monogenism-polygenism dialectic has left an indelible stamp on”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
51 of 51

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The writings of the race scientists and exegetes discussed are representative of the broader racial discourse of the period.

    “The intellectuals espousing monogenism and polygenism were the leading scientists of the age, pioneering new fields such as natural history, geology, physical anthropology, ethnology, among others; and it is their cogitations about race that first gave definitive shape and form to what was, prior to the eighteenth century, only a penumbra (Fredrickson 2002).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The social and intellectual context of an exegete can be inferred from the racial ethos of the period.

    “That the racial ethos of the period dictated both the questions exegetes posed and the conclusions they derived from the text demonstrates that biblical interpretation within this climate was never an innocuous pursuit, but rather reflected the values and beliefs current in the social context of the exegete.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Slave money funded many academic institutions and disciplines.

    “Indeed, because slave money funded many academic institutions and disciplines, for obvious reasons the academy was obliged to overtly endorse or give an implicit nod to the industry through its silence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Slavery as an institution thrived concurrently with professions of human unity.

    “However, slavery as an institution thrived concurrently with unctuous professions of human unity.”
4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. Agassiz, 1850, The Diversity of Origin of the Human Race, The Christian Examiner, 49, 110
  2. Bernal, Martin (1987). Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, Rutgers University Press.
  3. Fredrickson, George M. (2002). Racism: A Short History, Princeton University Press.
  4. Gibbes, 1851, Death of Samuel George Morton, M.D, Charleston Medical Journal, VI, 594
  5. Goldenberg, David M. (2003). The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Princeton University Press.
  6. Harrison, Mark (1999). Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and British Imperialism in India, 1600–1850, Oxford University Press.
  7. Horsman, Reginald (1981). Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism, Harvard University Press.
  8. Livingstone, David N. (2008). Adam’s Ancestors: Race, Religion, and the Politics of Human Origins, Johns Hopkins University Press.
  9. Nott, Josiah C., and Gliddon, George R. (1854). Types of Mankind, Lippincott, Grambo and Company.
  10. Bolgar, Robert Ralph (1974a). The Development of Religious Scepticism and the Influence of Isaac la Peyrère’s Pre-Adamism and Bible Criticism. Classical Influences on European Culture, A.D. 1500–1700, Cambridge University Press.
  11. Schneider, Herbert W., Walton, Craig, and Anton, John P. (1974b). The Philosophical Basis of Modern Racism. Philosophy and the Civilizing Arts: Essays Presented to Herbert W. Schneider, Ohio University Press.
  12. Stanton, William R. (1960). The Leopard’s Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America, 1815–1859, University of Chicago Press.
  13. Rattansi, Ali, and Westwood, Sallie (1994). Egypt in America: Black Athena, Racism and Colonial Discourse. Racism, Modernity and Identity: On the Western Front, Polity Press.

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Authors
Burrell, K.
Affiliations
Burman University (CA)
Corresponding author
Burrell, Kevin
Venue
Religions
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-09-09
Volume
12
Issue
9
Pages
742
ISSN
2077-1444 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/rel12090742
OpenAlex
W3198326495
Semantic Scholar
9117a9c34ed871982d61d6ae7569eb230088e660
Cited by
5
References
29
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1
FWCI
6.29
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Religions (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Theological Perspectives and Practices
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Religion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity
Keywords
slavery, Hebrew Bible, Old Testament, racial theory, racial hierarchy, Christian worldview, Genesis, biblical exegesis, 19th century, scientific racism, identity politics, European exceptionalism

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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