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Cited by 22Groundwater and Isotope GeochemistryGeochemistry and Geologic MappingGeochemistry and Elemental Analysis

Framework for remote sensing and modelling of lithium-brine deposit formation

Open access
Rossi, Cristian, Bateson, Luke, Bayaraa, Maral, Butcher, Andrew, Ford, Jonathan, Hughes, Andrew·2022·Remote Sensing
DOI 10.3390/rs14061383
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Abstract

The demand for “green” metals such as lithium is increasing as the world works to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels. More than half of the world’s lithium resources are contained in lithium-brine deposits, including the salt flats, or “salars”, of the Andean region of South America, also known as the Lithium Triangle. The genesis of lithium-brine deposits is largely driven by the leaching of lithium from source rocks in watersheds, transport via groundwater systems to salars, and evaporative concentration in salars. The goal of this research is to create a consistent and seamless methodology for tracking lithium mass from its source in the watershed to its greatest concentration in the nucleus. The area of interest is in and around Bolivia’s Salar de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat. We explore how Li-brine deposits form, where the water and solute come from, how the brines are formed, and how abstraction affects the mass balance inside the salar. To support the entire system, open-source Earth observation (EO) data are analysed. We found that by constructing a flexible and repeatable workflow, the question of how lithium reaches the Salar de Uyuni can be addressed. The work demonstrated the importance of groundwater flow to the river network and highlighted the need for flow data for the main river supplying the salar with both water inflow and lithium mass.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper presents a repeatable, open-data remote sensing and modelling workflow to track lithium from source rocks and groundwater in the Salar de Uyuni watershed to brine concentration in the salar. It integrates EO-based geological mapping, hydrogeological parameterisation, MODFLOW/MODPATH groundwater and particle tracking, and mass-balance calculations, finding groundwater flow to rivers and the Rio Grande de Lipez is central but requires more flow data.

Key findings

  • A seamless workflow combining remote sensing, geology, hydrology, and mass balance was developed and demonstrated for the Salar de Uyuni (about 9600 km², ~3600 m elevation; watershed ~55,000 km²).
  • Groundwater flow and particle tracking show particles mainly enter the river system or reach the salar; maximum travel time is of the order of 1 Ma, while shorter-lived particles (<10,000 a) migrate to rivers and can reach the salar via the Rio Grande de Lipez delta.
  • Mass balance: Rio Grande de Lipez lithium is typically 1–5 mg/L versus salar maximum 5–10 g/L; rock-mass lithium is 16–65 mg/L; prior calculations with 2 cumecs and 3 mg/L can “fill” the salar every 100,000 years, shorter than 1.9 Ma for Atacama; particle tracks suggest ~10⁴ years can leach groundwater to ~10 mg/L.
  • The work highlights the importance of groundwater flow to the river network and the need for flow data for the main river supplying the salar with both water inflow and lithium mass.

Methods

  • Study area: southern catchment of Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia; open-source EO and auxiliary data including ASTER, Landsat-8, SRTM, WWF HydroSHEDS, ESA CCI land cover, ERA5, USGS 1:500,000 and GEOBOL 1:250,000 geological maps, and literature/BGS parameters.
  • Geological processing: ASTER SWIR/TIR indices (Abrams ratio, Quartz Index, Carbonate Index, Mafic Index/MIc), ternary plots of 500 m polygons, and manual interpretation to refine the geological map and river network.
  • Hydrogeological and mass-balance modelling: 16 hydrogeological units with hydraulic conductivity and porosity; steady-state MODFLOW on a 1 km grid, recharge set to 10% of long-term average rainfall, rivers and salar evaporation; MODPATH v7.2.001 particle tracking; mass balance using groundwater/surface-water fluxes and lithium concentrations.

Limitations

  • Stated: considerable uncertainty remains on current processes and the dynamic system with changes to rock mass and climate; more field data such as groundwater heads and river flows, plus dating/geochemical analysis, are needed.
  • Stated: the ZOODRM recharge model was not applied because gridded rainfall provided a first estimate; further calibration can be undertaken once observed groundwater heads are available; geological mapping was done without visiting the field.
  • Evident from the text: ASTER SWIR bands malfunctioned from April 2008, so only 2000–2007 imagery was used; the workflow relies on literature/BGS parameters and assumptions, with no ground-truthing in this test case.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/rs14061383

Cites

46 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 29 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    Ternary plots can be used to identify areas of superficial sediment whose spectral signature is similar to that of the lavas or ignimbrites, with the sediment pixel plotting in a similar position to the ignimbrite pixel.

    “In this way we are able to use the ternary plots to identify the areas of superficial sediment which have a similar spectral signature to the lavas or ignimbrites; that is to say, the pixel over the sediment will plot in a similar position on the ternary plot to that from the ignimbrite.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Ternary plots of the spectral indices allow identification of areas of superficial sediment whose spectral signature is similar to the lavas or ignimbrites.

    “In this way we are able to use the ternary plots to identify the areas of superficial sediment which have a similar spectral signature to the lavas or ignimbrites; that is to say, the pixel over the sediment will plot in a similar position on the ternary plot to that from the ignimbrite.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Groundwater flow is important to the river network in the study area.

    “The work demonstrated the importance of groundwater flow to the river network and highlighted the need for flow data for the main river supplying the salar with both water inflow and lithium mass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Examination of the Landsat-8 image and Abrams ASTER ratio shows that the ignimbrites to the east appear different in both composition and texture from those in the west.

    “Examination of the Landsat-8 image and Abrams ASTER ratio (as described in Section 2.2, Figure 8c) shows that the ignimbrites on to the east appear different in both composition and texture to those in the west.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    The study developed a complete workflow to characterise the movement of lithium from the watershed into the salt lake.

    “In this study, we have developed a complete workflow to characterise the movement of lithium from the watershed into the salt lake.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The typical lithium concentration in the main river feeding the salar, the Rio Grande de Lipez, is of the order of 1-5 mg/L.

    “The typical concentration of lithium in the main river feeding the salar, Rio Grande de Lipez, is of the order of 1-5 mg/L.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    The maximum lithium concentration in the salar is 5-10 g/L, which is high compared with the river concentration but low relative to typical surface water.

    “Whilst this is low compared to the maximum lithium concentration in the salar of 5-10 g/L, it is relatively high for surface water.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The geological interpretation shows that multiple instances and ages of Qtig ignimbrite occur, including relatively young ignimbrite deposits in the western part of the map and relatively old ignimbrite deposits in the eastern part, separated by an intervening unit of stratovolcano deposits.

    “the geological interpretation shows that multiple instances and ages of Qtig (ignimbrite) occur, including relatively young ignimbrite deposits (western part of the map) and relatively old ignimbrite deposits (eastern part of the image), separated by an intervening unit of stratovolcano deposits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Minerals exhibit unique absorption and reflection properties in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum that allow them to be identified.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The steady-state groundwater heads show that the salars in the system act as low points attracting groundwater outflow, and the distribution of groundwater heads approximates the topography, with higher heads in the hinterland surrounding the river valleys and the salars.

    “The groundwater heads, which are fluid pressures expressed as heights combined with datum levels, show that the salars in the system act as low points attracting groundwater outflow.”
    • Also stated in: § 5.1. MODFLOW Model · plain
      “The distribution of groundwater heads then approximates the topography, with higher heads in the hinterland surrounding the river valleys and the salars.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The final enhanced geological map covers the entire study area, splits mapped ignimbrites according to their relative age, and subdivides superficial geology based on parent material and hence likely lithium concentrations.

    “which brings to the final enhanced geological map that covers the entire study area and whose attributes split mapped ignimbrites according to their relative age and subdivides superficial geology based on parent material and hence likely lithium concentrations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The particle tracks produced for the southern part of the Uyuni watershed mainly enter the river system or find their way to the salar itself.

    “They mainly enter the river system or find their way to the salar itself.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The models are used to determine both surface and groundwater flow paths in the basin and how water-rock interaction can allow the waters to pick up lithium and bring it into the salar.

    “The models are then used to determine both surface and groundwater flow paths in the basin and how water-rock interaction can allow the waters to pick up lithium and then bring it into the salar.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    Some of the existing polygons in the USGS dataset could be modified in light of the new satellite imagery and the conceptual 3D geological understanding of the project geologists.

    “Whilst carrying out this remote geological mapping it becomes apparent that some of the existing polygons in the USGS dataset could be modified considering the new satellite imagery and conceptual 3D geological understanding of the project geologists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The maximum time of travel of the particles is of the order of 1 Ma, consistent with times observed in other salar watersheds such as Atacama.

    “The maximum time of travel is of the order of 1 Ma, consistent with times observed in other salar watersheds, e.g., Atacama [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Munk, 2018, Hydrogeochemical fluxes and processes contributing to the formation of lithium-enriched brines in a hyper-arid continental basin, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The timescales predicted by the modelling bear out that groundwater inflows may have been built up during wetter periods, albeit with uncertainties associated with simulating processes over such long timescales.

    “This is borne out by the timescales predicted by the modelling, albeit with uncertainties associated with simulating processes over such long timescales.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    ASTER SWIR bands malfunction from April 2008, so only image combinations between 2000 and 2007 were used.

    “ASTER SWIR bands malfunction from April 2008; therefore, combinations of images between 2000 and 2007 have been used.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Flow data are needed for the main river supplying the salar with both water inflow and lithium mass.

    “The work demonstrated the importance of groundwater flow to the river network and highlighted the need for flow data for the main river supplying the salar with both water inflow and lithium mass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The conceptual 3D geological model provides a framework that can be used to consider the evolution and movement of lithium-bearing water from source to salar.

    “The model provides a framework that can be used to consider the evolution and movement of lithium-bearing water from source to salar.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study gives systems-based knowledge of the genesis of lithium-brine deposits, which can help with broader issues such as resource reporting and establishing uncertainty bounds to resource estimations.

    “It gives a systems-based knowledge of the genesis of lithium-brine deposits, which can help with broader issues such as resource reporting and establishing uncertainty bounds to resource estimations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Brine deposits account for around 75% of the world's lithium, owing to lower costs of extraction.

    “Brine deposits account for around 75% of the world's lithium, due to lower costs of extraction [4,5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Munk, 2016, Lithium Brines: A Global Perspective, Rev. Econ. Geol.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Flexer, 2018, Lithium recovery from brines: A vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact in its mining and processing, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    By constructing a flexible and repeatable workflow, the question of how lithium reaches the Salar de Uyuni can be addressed.

    “We found that by constructing a flexible and repeatable workflow, the question of how lithium reaches the Salar de Uyuni can be addressed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Abrams ratio is one of the most widely utilised band ratios for geological mapping in the VNIR-SWIR.

    “Specifically, the Abrams ratio is one of the most widely utilised band ratio for geological mapping in the VNIR-SWIR [41][42][43][44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41][42][43][44]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The published remote sensing studies of lithium cover extraction from rocks and address the detection of Li-bearing pegmatites through spectral analysis.

    “Specifically, [17][18][19][20] cover the extraction from rocks and address the detection of Li-bearing pegmatites through spectral analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17][18][19][20]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Rossi et al. cover the extraction from subterranean brines with an approach that combines several geological and geobotanical proxies.

    “Rossi et al. [21] instead covers the extraction from subterranean brines with an approach that combines several geological and geobotanical proxies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Rossi, C., Spittle, S., Bayaraa, M., Pandey, A., and Henry, N. (2018, January 22–27). An Earth Observation Framework for the Lithium Exploration. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2018—2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Valencia, Spain. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Remote sensing cannot penetrate deep into the surface, so groundwater must be investigated through derived indicators.

    “where several types of remote sensing technologies are used to derive indicators of groundwater, since remote sensing cannot penetrate deep into surface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Waters, 1990, Applications of remote sensing to groundwater hydrology, Remote Sens. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Singhal, B., and Ravi, P. (2010). Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks, Springer Science & Business Media. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Deriving hydrogeological frameworks with ground data is a common and old practice.

    “To be noted, the derivation of hydrogeological frameworks with ground data is a common and old practice, an example being the study in [22], which defined the hydraulic character and subsurface distribution of the major aquifers and aquitards, including their areas of recharge and discharge and the rate and the direction of groundwater movement for a test site in Nevada, United States.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Winograd, I., and William, T. (1975). Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Framework, South-Central Great Basin, Nevada-California, with Special Reference to the Nevada Test Site. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The genesis of lithium-brine deposits is largely driven by the leaching of lithium from source rocks in watersheds, transport via groundwater systems to salars, and evaporative concentration in salars.

    “The genesis of lithium-brine deposits is largely driven by the leaching of lithium from source rocks in watersheds, transport via groundwater systems to salars, and evaporative concentration in salars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Remote sensing of lithium deposits is a relatively new application and only a few studies have been published.

    “Remote sensing of lithium deposits is a relatively new application and only a few studies have been published, also reviewed by Cardoso et al. [17], with a few papers published by the same research group in scientific journals (e.g., [18]) and a few other conference proceedings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Cardoso-Fernandes, J., Teodoro, A.C., Lima, A., Perrotta, M., and Roda-Robles, E. (2020). Detecting Lithium (Li) mineralizations from space: Current research and future perspectives. Appl. Sci., 10. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Teodoro, 2019, Remote sensing data in lithium (Li) exploration: A new approach for the detection of Li-bearing pegmatites, Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Because of the broad carbonate absorption band at B14, the Mafic Index is sensitive to carbonates, so an adjusted Mafic Index (MIc) has been developed to correct this effect.

    “Due to the broad carbonate absorption band at B14 the Mafic Index is sensitive to carbonates, so an adjusted Mafic Index (MIc) has been developed to correct this effect [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Gupta, R. (2017). Remote Sensing Geology, Springer. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Remote sensing is widely used for geological applications.

    “Remote sensing is being widely used for geological applications [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Gupta, R. (2017). Remote Sensing Geology, Springer. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Determining the three-dimensionality of the geology is important because fluid flow and liberation of lithium into the groundwater system takes place both at the ground surface and in the subsurface.

    “Determining the three-dimensionality of the geology is important, as the fluid flow and liberation of lithium into the groundwater system takes place both at the ground surface and in the subsurface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Superficial sediments with a spectral signature similar to the ignimbrites are thought to be primarily derived from the ignimbrites, and those with a signature similar to the lavas are thought to be derived from the lavas.

    “Those with a similar signature to the ignimbrites are thought to be primarily derived from the ignimbrites and those with a similar signature to the lavas are thought to be derived from the lavas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High concentrations of lithium are present at the south end of the Salar de Uyuni, near the mouth of the Rio Grande de Lipez, where the current mining operations and ponds are located.

    “Previous studies on the source of lithium showed how high concentrations of lithium are present at the south end of the salar, near the mouth of the Rio Grande de Lipez, where the current mining operations and ponds are located [26].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Rettig, 1980, Geochemical evolution of brines in the Salar of Uyuni, Bolivia, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Groundwater inflows to the salar may not be recharged contemporaneously; they may have been built up during wetter periods and are only now finding their way to the salar.

    “Further, the groundwater inflows to the salar may not be recharged contemporaneously; rather, they may have been built up during wetter periods and are only now finding their way to the salar [52].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Boutt, 2021, Imbalance in the modern hydrologic budget of topographic catchments along the western slope of the Andes (21–25° S): Implications for groundwater recharge assessment, Hydrogeol. J. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Considerable uncertainty remains both on the processes as they exist now and on the dynamic nature of the system with changes to rock mass and climate.

    “However, considerable uncertainty remains both on the processes as they exist now and the dynamic nature of the system with changes to rock mass and climate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The presented workflow is flexible and can be used with different model codes as well as simpler approaches, such as distributed rainfall rather than a fully featured recharge model.

    “The workflow is flexible and can be used with different model codes as well as simpler approaches, such as distributed rainfall rather than a fully featured recharge model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The salar is a low point in the system from a groundwater head perspective and so will attract any particles that are not captured by the river network.

    “The latter is a low point in the system from a groundwater head perspective (see Figure 12) and so will attract any particles that are not captured by the river network.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The availability of the workflow enables independent assessment and scrutiny of the process and its outcome.

    “Finally, the availability of the workflow enables independent assessment and scrutiny of the process and its outcome.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lithium has accumulated in the salar over long timescales, which is difficult to simulate because both the rock mass and the climate vary over this time period.

    “Whilst lithium has accumulated in the salar over the long timescales, this is difficult to simulate as both the rock mass and the climate vary over this time period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Choosing and swapping out different components of the workflow can be used to assess how differing data sources affect the outcome.

    “Firstly, choosing and swapping out different components of the workflow can be used to assess how differing data sources affect the outcome.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Each geological unit's hydraulic conductivity and porosity values are based on experience or background knowledge supplemented by literature values.

    “Both are based on experience or background knowledge supplemented by literature values and are used as base variables to feed into the modelling process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Superficial sediments with a spectral signature similar to the ignimbrites are thought to be primarily derived from the ignimbrites, and those similar to the lavas are thought to be derived from the lavas.

    “Those with a similar signature to the ignimbrites are thought to be primarily derived from the ignimbrites and those with a similar signature to the lavas are thought to be derived from the lavas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The outputs of this study have been benchmarked against previous work in the Uyuni watershed and against other studies in salars of the Lithium Triangle countries, e.g. Atacama.

    “The outputs from this study have been benchmarked against previous work undertaken in the Uyuni watershed as well as other studies in salars in the Lithium Triangle countries, e.g., Atacama.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The 16 lithologies are parametrised based on experience derived from working on other salars and literature values.

    “The table in Appendix A illustrates how the 16 lithologies are parametrised based on experience derived from working on other salars and literature values [48].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Houston, 2011, The evaluation of brine prospects and the requirement for modifications to filing standards, Econ. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The eastern ignimbrites were in place before the lava was extruded and are therefore older than the lava.

    “We can also see that the lava flows over the ignimbrites to the east; therefore, the eastern ignimbrites were in place before the lava was extruded and are therefore older.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The initial set of model parameters was adjusted so that the distribution of groundwater heads was sensible, i.e. not above the ground surface.

    “The initial set of parameters were adjusted so as to ensure that the distribution of groundwater heads was sensible, i.e., not above the ground surface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The initial hydrogeological parameterisation was derived from BGS data holdings and existing literature, and was refined as modelling proceeded so that relative values were kept while absolute values were adjusted to ensure credible modelling results.

    “To demonstrate how the workflow can be completed, the initial hydrogeological parameterisation has been derived from BGS data holdings and existing literature, as performed for the current test case [38][39][40].”
    • Also stated in: § 4. Hydrogeological Processing · plain
      “This was refined as the modelling proceeded to keep the relative values, but the absolute values were adjusted to ensure credible modelling results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [38] Munk, 2018, Hydrogeochemical fluxes and processes contributing to the formation of lithium-enriched brines in a hyper-arid continental basin, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [39] Risacher, 1991, Geochemistry of Bolivian salars, Lipez, southern Altiplano: Origin of solutes and brine evolution, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [40] Kenawy, 2015, Average monthly and annual climate maps for Bolivia, J. Maps

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The ignimbrites to the west are younger than the lava and cannot be the same unit as the ignimbrites in the east.

    “However, the ignimbrites in the west appear to overlap and be on top of the lavas; therefore, the ignimbrites to the west are younger than the lava and as such cannot be the same unit as those in the east.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Remote sensing data feed into the geological modelling, which ensures that the geology is as accurate as possible.

    “Firstly, remote sensing data feed into the geological modelling (Section 3), which ensures that the geology is as accurate as possible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Given the extent of open data sources available, the workflow demonstrates how far it is possible to go with freely available data.

    “However, given the extent of open data sources available, the workflow demonstrates how far it is possible to go with freely available data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Lithium in the salar is sourced from weathering of volcanic bedrock and derived sediments in the upper part of the drainage basin, coinciding with areas of higher precipitation, and is transported to the salar by surface water and groundwater flow.

    “showing potential sources of lithium (weathering of volcanic bedrock and derived sediments) in the upper part of the drainage basin, coinciding with areas of higher precipitation; pathways for surface water and groundwater flow that transports lithium from source areas to the salar (blue lines)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The ZOODRM recharge model was not applied in this case because gridded rainfall for Bolivia provides a suitable first estimate of recharge, and this method of estimating recharge is commensurate with the complexity of the model and the confidence of the other data sources.

    “It is to be noted that the ZOODRM model has not been applied in this case due to the availability of gridded rainfall for Bolivia providing a suitable first guestimate of recharge.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Mass Balance Derivation · hedged
      “It is thought that this method of estimating recharge is commensurate with the complexity of the model and confidence of the other data sources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The ease by which the process can be reproduced can enable sensitivity analysis to be undertaken.

    “Secondly, the ease by which the process can be reproduced can enable sensitivity analysis to be undertaken.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    At the salar, lower precipitation and higher evaporation result in the concentration of inflowing water to create lithium-enriched brines.

    “and the salar where lower precipitation and higher evaporation result in the concentration of inflowing water to create lithium-enriched brines”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
49 of 49

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The major sources of lithium are the recent volcanic rocks, including rhyolitic ignimbrites, and derived unconsolidated sediments prevalent in the drainage area of the Rio Grande.

    “Based on geochemical studies from salars within similar geological settings, the authors assume that major sources of lithium are the recent volcanic rocks, including rhyolitic ignimbrites (pyroclastic rocks made up from pumice, rock fragments, volcanic ash, and glass shards), and derived unconsolidated sediments prevalent in the drainage area of the Rio Grande [27][28][29][30].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Minerals exhibit unique absorption and reflection properties in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum that allow them to be identified.

    “Minerals exhibit unique absorption and reflection properties in the infrared region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum that allow them to be identified, similar to human fingerprints.”
    “Minerals exhibit unique absorption and reflection properties in the infrared region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum that allow them to be identified, similar to human fingerprints.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Groundwater supplies surface water in the dry season.

    “The two are interrelated, with groundwater supplying surface water in the dry season.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The drainage basin for the Salar de Uyuni extends beyond the coverage of the existing geological map data.

    “The drainage basin for the Salar de Uyuni extends beyond the coverage of the existing geological map data.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The existing polygons of the USGS geological map are based on primary surveys that predate the widespread availability of Earth observation data.

    “Existing polygons of the USGS geological map, based on primary surveys that predate the widespread availability of EO data, are then extended using the imagery as a guide.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    ASTER short-wave infrared (SWIR) bands malfunction from April 2008.

    “ASTER SWIR bands malfunction from April 2008; therefore, combinations of images between 2000 and 2007 have been used.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • While the region is arid/semi-arid, salars receive significant fresh water inflows, meaning sustainable fresh water abstraction is theoretically possible depending on the contemporary recharge vs. withdrawal rate.

    “Whilst the region is arid/semi-arid, salars do receive significant fresh water inflows (Rossi et al., 2022), meaning sustainable fresh water abstraction is theoretically possible depending on the contemporary recharge vs. withdrawal rate.”

    From Life cycle assessment and water use impacts of lithium production from salar deposits: Challenges and opportunities (2024) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2022

  • Brines are formed and concentrated in the nucleus, which typically has the greatest lithium concentrations and extraction.

    “Brines are formed and concentrated in the nucleus, and typically, this is where the greatest lithium concentrations and extraction is located (Rossi et al., 2022).”

    From Life cycle assessment and water use impacts of lithium production from salar deposits: Challenges and opportunities (2024) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2022

  • Determining impacts of abstraction on salars is difficult given the aridity of the region, system complexity, variation of climate conditions and the system's response potentially taking years or even decades to materialise.

    “Determining impacts is difficult given the aridity of the region, system complexity, variation of climate conditions and the system's response potentially taking years or even decades to materialise (Rossi et al., 2022).”

    From Life cycle assessment and water use impacts of lithium production from salar deposits: Challenges and opportunities (2024) · cites this paper as Rossi et al., 2022

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Light-blue particle tracks are assigned to the wrong figure

    Minor

    The text points to Figure 11b for the light-blue particle tracks, whereas the figure captions identify Figure 11b as rainfall and Figure 13a as the particle-track panel with the light-blue highlighting.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 47 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Munk, 2016, Lithium Brines: A Global Perspective, Rev. Econ. Geol., 18, 339

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Rossi, C., Bateson, L., Bayaraa, M., Butcher, A., Ford, J., & Hughes, A.
Affiliations
  • Satellite Applications Catapult (United Kingdom) (GB)
  • British Geological Survey (GB)
Corresponding author
Rossi, Cristian
ORCID
Venue
Remote Sensing
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2022-03-12
Volume
14
Issue
6
Pages
1383
ISSN
2072-4292 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/rs14061383
OpenAlex
W4221136242
Cited by
20
References
47
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2
FWCI
2.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Remote Sensing (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • NERC Open Research Archive (Natural Environment Research Council) (acceptedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Innovate UK (134012)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Groundwater and Isotope Geochemistry
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Geochemistry and Geologic Mapping
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
Keywords
Salar de Uyuni, salt pans, lithium triangle, groundwater flow, evaporative concentration, brine formation, lithium recovery, Earth observation data, remote sensing of groundwater

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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