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Cited by 194Virology and Viral DiseasesViral Infections and Outbreaks ResearchInfectious Encephalopathies and Encephalitis

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 78 of the 78 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Nipah Virus: Past Outbreaks and Future Containment

Open access
Soman Pillai, Vinod, Krishna, Gayathri, Valiya Veettil, Mohanan·2020·Viruses
DOI 10.3390/v12040465PMC PMC7232522
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Abstract

Viral outbreaks of varying frequencies and severities have caused panic and havoc across the globe throughout history. Influenza, small pox, measles, and yellow fever reverberated for centuries, causing huge burden for economies. The twenty-first century witnessed the most pathogenic and contagious virus outbreaks of zoonotic origin including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Ebola virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Nipah virus. Nipah is considered one of the world’s deadliest viruses with the heaviest mortality rates in some instances. It is known to cause encephalitis, with cases of acute respiratory distress turning fatal. Various factors contribute to the onset and spread of the virus. All through the infected zone, various strategies to tackle and enhance the surveillance and awareness with greater emphasis on personal hygiene has been formulated. This review discusses the recent outbreaks of Nipah virus in Malaysia, Bangladesh and India, the routes of transmission, prevention and control measures employed along with possible reasons behind the outbreaks, and the precautionary measures to be ensured by private–public undertakings to contain and ensure a lower incidence in the future.

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Figures

Figure 1 Representation of Nipah virus (NiV) structure. The RNA genome attached to the N, P, and L proteins form the ribonucleoprotein complex which is surrounded by a lipid bilayer envelope studded with two envelope glycoproteins G and F. The RNA encodes six structural proteins: N, P, M, F, G and L. The matrix protein M associates with the inner part of the envelope. The structural proteins, RNA and lipid bilayer are indicated in different colors.
Figure 1 Representation of Nipah virus (NiV) structure. The RNA genome attached to the N, P, and L proteins form the ribonucleoprotein complex which is surrounded by a lipid bilayer envelope studded with two envelope glycoproteins G and F. The RNA encodes six structural proteins: N, P, M, F, G and L. The matrix protein M associates with the inner part of the envelope. The structural proteins, RNA and lipid bilayer are indicated in different colors.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Map of NiV outbreaks and Pteropus fruit bats distribution. In the map, the sites of NiV outbreaks in India, Bangladesh and Malaysia are depicted in different colors. Pteropus bat (the major carriers of NiV) prevalent regions are demarcated by red-dotted line.
Figure 2 Map of NiV outbreaks and Pteropus fruit bats distribution. In the map, the sites of NiV outbreaks in India, Bangladesh and Malaysia are depicted in different colors. Pteropus bat (the major carriers of NiV) prevalent regions are demarcated by red-dotted line.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Routes of NiV transmission. Different locations have different routes of transmission. (A) In Malaysia, bat bitten fruits contaminated with NiV-M were consumed by pigs and workers handling the pigs were infected with NiV-M. (B) In Bangladesh, bat saliva- and excreta-contaminated palm sap consumption lead to NiV-B infection in humans and was spread further via nosocomial mode. Infected bats shed the virus in their urine, excreta and saliva. (C) In India, the possibility of direct bat-to-human transmission has been reported in Kerala state, but this was not supported by adequate evidence. Nosocomial spread of NiV-B have been reported in two different states—Kerala and West Bengal.
Figure 3 Routes of NiV transmission. Different locations have different routes of transmission. (A) In Malaysia, bat bitten fruits contaminated with NiV-M were consumed by pigs and workers handling the pigs were infected with NiV-M. (B) In Bangladesh, bat saliva- and excreta-contaminated palm sap consumption lead to NiV-B infection in humans and was spread further via nosocomial mode. Infected bats shed the virus in their urine, excreta and saliva. (C) In India, the possibility of direct bat-to-human transmission has been reported in Kerala state, but this was not supported by adequate evidence. Nosocomial spread of NiV-B have been reported in two different states—Kerala and West Bengal.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Outbreak statistics. (A) NiV outbreak across the world with percentage of outbreaks in Malaysia, Bangladesh and India individually. (B) State- and year-wise NiV outbreaks in percentage in India. (C) NiV mortality rate in the Indian states of West Bengal and Kerala.
Figure 4 Outbreak statistics. (A) NiV outbreak across the world with percentage of outbreaks in Malaysia, Bangladesh and India individually. (B) State- and year-wise NiV outbreaks in percentage in India. (C) NiV mortality rate in the Indian states of West Bengal and Kerala.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Soman Pillai, V., Krishna, G., & Valiya Veettil, M.
Affiliations
  • Virology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682022, Kerala, India
  • Cochin University of Science and Technology (IN)
Venue
Viruses
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-04-20
Volume
12
Issue
4
Pages
465
ISSN
1999-4915 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/v12040465
PMC
PMC7232522
OpenAlex
W3017009457
Cited by
194
References
78
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 5
FWCI
3.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Viruses (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Virology and Viral Diseases
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Outbreaks Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Infectious Encephalopathies and Encephalitis
Keywords
Nipah virus, zoonotic disease outbreaks, epidemic containment, transmission routes, prevention and control measures, encephalitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, personal hygiene, disease surveillance, public-private partnerships
MeSH terms
Animals, Bangladesh, Chiroptera, Disease Outbreaks, Humans, India, Malaysia, Viral Structural Proteins, Infection Control, Encephalitis, Viral, Nipah Virus, Henipavirus Infections

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CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Nipah Virus: Past Outbreaks and Future Containment. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.3390/v12040465
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Soman Pillai, V., Krishna, G., & Valiya Veettil, M. (2020). Nipah Virus: Past Outbreaks and Future Containment. Viruses. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12040465

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