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Vaccination into the Dermal Compartment: Techniques, Challenges, and Prospects
Open accessAbstract
In 2019, an ‘influenza pandemic’ and ‘vaccine hesitancy’ were listed as two of the top 10 challenges to global health by the WHO. The skin is a unique vaccination site, due to its immune-rich milieu, which is evolutionarily primed to respond to challenge, and its ability to induce both humoral and cellular immunity. Vaccination into this dermal compartment offers a way of addressing both of the challenges presented by the WHO, as well as opening up avenues for novel vaccine formulation and dose-sparing strategies to enter the clinic. This review will provide an overview of the diverse range of vaccination techniques available to target the dermal compartment, as well as their current state, challenges, and prospects, and touch upon the formulations that have been developed to maximally benefit from these new techniques. These include needle and syringe techniques, microneedles, DNA tattooing, jet and ballistic delivery, and skin permeabilization techniques, including thermal ablation, chemical enhancers, ablation, electroporation, iontophoresis, and sonophoresis.
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“The dermis has a rich network of dendritic cells, macrophages and T cells40.”
From An Omicron-specific, self-amplifying mRNA booster vaccine for COVID-19: a phase 2/3 randomized trial (2024) · cites this paper as [40]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Hettinga, J., & Carlisle, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Carlisle, Robert
- Venue
- Vaccines
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-09-16
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 534
- ISSN
- 2076-393X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7564253
- OpenAlex
- W3085198834
- Cited by
- 72
- References
- 272
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 0.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Vaccines (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/L016494/1)
- EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Medical Imaging (EP/L024012/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Advancements in Transdermal Drug Delivery
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Emergency Medicine › Intramuscular injections and effects
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Virology › Poxvirus research and outbreaks
- Keywords
- microneedles, electroporation, iontophoresis, sonophoresis, thermal ablation, vaccine formulation, humoral and cellular immunity, pandemic influenza, vaccine hesitancy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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