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Cited by 478Advanced Battery Materials and TechnologiesAdvancements in Battery MaterialsThermal Expansion and Ionic Conductivity

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From lithium to sodium: cell chemistry of room temperature sodium–air and sodium–sulfur batteries

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Adelhelm, Philipp, Hartmann, Pascal, Bender, Conrad L, Busche, Martin, Eufinger, Christine, Janek, Juergen·2015·Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
DOI 10.3762/bjnano.6.105PMC PMC4419580
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Abstract

Research devoted to room temperature lithium-sulfur (Li/S8) and lithium-oxygen (Li/O2) batteries has significantly increased over the past ten years. The race to develop such cell systems is mainly motivated by the very high theoretical energy density and the abundance of sulfur and oxygen. The cell chemistry, however, is complex, and progress toward practical device development remains hampered by some fundamental key issues, which are currently being tackled by numerous approaches. Quite surprisingly, not much is known about the analogous sodium-based battery systems, although the already commercialized, high-temperature Na/S8 and Na/NiCl2 batteries suggest that a rechargeable battery based on sodium is feasible on a large scale. Moreover, the natural abundance of sodium is an attractive benefit for the development of batteries based on low cost components. This review provides a summary of the state-of-the-art knowledge on lithium-sulfur and lithium-oxygen batteries and a direct comparison with the analogous sodium systems. The general properties, major benefits and challenges, recent strategies for performance improvements and general guidelines for further development are summarized and critically discussed. In general, the substitution of lithium for sodium has a strong impact on the overall properties of the cell reaction and differences in ion transport, phase stability, electrode potential, energy density, etc. can be thus expected. Whether these differences will benefit a more reversible cell chemistry is still an open question, but some of the first reports on room temperature Na/S8 and Na/O2 cells already show some exciting differences as compared to the established Li/S8 and Li/O2 systems.

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Figure 1 Theoretical and (estimated) practical energy densities of different rechargeable batteries: Pb–acid – lead acid, NiMH – nickel metal hydride, Na-ion – estimate derived from data for Li-ion assuming a slightly lower cell voltage, Li-ion – average over different types, HT-Na/S8 – high temperature sodium–sulfur battery, Li/S8 and Na/S8 – lithium–sulfur and sodium–sulfur battery assuming Li2S and Na2S as discharge products, Li/O2 and Na/O2 – lithium–oxygen battery (theoretical values include the weight of oxygen and depend on the stoichiometry of the assumed discharge product, i.e., oxide, peroxide or superoxide). Note that the values for practical energy densities can largely vary depending on the battery design (size, high power, high energy, single cell or battery) and the state of development. All values for practical energy densities refer to the cell level (except Pb–acid, 12 V). The values for the Li/S8 and Li/O2 batteries were taken from the literature (cited within the main text) and are used to estimate the energy densities for the Na/S8 and Na/O2 cells. Of the above technologies, only the lead acid, NiMH, Li-ion and high temperature Na/S8 technologies have been commercialized to date.
Figure 1 Theoretical and (estimated) practical energy densities of different rechargeable batteries: Pb–acid – lead acid, NiMH – nickel metal hydride, Na-ion – estimate derived from data for Li-ion assuming a slightly lower cell voltage, Li-ion – average over different types, HT-Na/S8 – high temperature sodium–sulfur battery, Li/S8 and Na/S8 – lithium–sulfur and sodium–sulfur battery assuming Li2S and Na2S as discharge products, Li/O2 and Na/O2 – lithium–oxygen battery (theoretical values include the weight of oxygen and depend on the stoichiometry of the assumed discharge product, i.e., oxide, peroxide or superoxide). Note that the values for practical energy densities can largely vary depending on the battery design (size, high power, high energy, single cell or battery) and the state of development. All values for practical energy densities refer to the cell level (except Pb–acid, 12 V). The values for the Li/S8 and Li/O2 batteries were taken from the literature (cited within the main text) and are used to estimate the energy densities for the Na/S8 and Na/O2 cells. Of the above technologies, only the lead acid, NiMH, Li-ion and high temperature Na/S8 technologies have been commercialized to date.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Operating principles of (a) a lithium-ion battery, (b) a metal–oxygen battery (non-aqueous electrolyte) and (c) a metal–sulfur battery during discharge. (A = Li, Na). A lithium-ion battery is based on intercalation compounds as electrodes. The exact cell reaction depends on the materials used. In this example, the reaction equation is formulated for the classical LIB with graphite as the negative and LiCoO2 as the positive electrode. The same concept can be applied for a sodium-ion battery. Metal–oxygen and metal–sulfur batteries perform best with a lithium or sodium metal as the anode. The positive electrode consists of a porous support, usually carbon. In a metal–oxygen battery, this support enables the reduction of atmospheric oxygen and accommodates the insulating discharge products of Li2O2, Na2O2, NaO2, or ideally, Li2O and Na2O. In metal–sulfur batteries, the support hosts the insulating end members of the cell reaction, which are sulfur (before discharge) and ideally Li2S and Na2S (after discharge). The sketch in Figure 2 illustrates the most frequently studied cell concepts for metal–oxygen and metal–sulfur cells. Other concepts, for example, solid electrolytes or liquid electrodes, are also currently being studied.
Figure 2 Operating principles of (a) a lithium-ion battery, (b) a metal–oxygen battery (non-aqueous electrolyte) and (c) a metal–sulfur battery during discharge. (A = Li, Na). A lithium-ion battery is based on intercalation compounds as electrodes. The exact cell reaction depends on the materials used. In this example, the reaction equation is formulated for the classical LIB with graphite as the negative and LiCoO2 as the positive electrode. The same concept can be applied for a sodium-ion battery. Metal–oxygen and metal–sulfur batteries perform best with a lithium or sodium metal as the anode. The positive electrode consists of a porous support, usually carbon. In a metal–oxygen battery, this support enables the reduction of atmospheric oxygen and accommodates the insulating discharge products of Li2O2, Na2O2, NaO2, or ideally, Li2O and Na2O. In metal–sulfur batteries, the support hosts the insulating end members of the cell reaction, which are sulfur (before discharge) and ideally Li2S and Na2S (after discharge). The sketch in Figure 2 illustrates the most frequently studied cell concepts for metal–oxygen and metal–sulfur cells. Other concepts, for example, solid electrolytes or liquid electrodes, are also currently being studied.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 (a) The Li–O phase diagram. (b) The Na–O phase diagram. Figure redrawn based on [18] and [19].
Figure 3 (a) The Li–O phase diagram. (b) The Na–O phase diagram. Figure redrawn based on [18] and [19].CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Matrix for classifying voltage profiles of metal–oxygen batteries. Type 1A is the ideal case. Frequently observed are Type 1B, 2C, 3B and 3C. The coulombic efficiency is calculated as Φ = Qcharge/Qdischarge × 100%.
Figure 4 Matrix for classifying voltage profiles of metal–oxygen batteries. Type 1A is the ideal case. Frequently observed are Type 1B, 2C, 3B and 3C. The coulombic efficiency is calculated as Φ = Qcharge/Qdischarge × 100%.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 DEMS analysis of Li/O2 cells with different electrolyte compositions, namely a mixture of propylene carbonate and dimethoxyethane, PC:DME, (a–c) and pure dimethoxyethane, DME, (d–f). Furthermore, gold, platinum and manganese dioxide were tested as heterogeneous catalysts. (a) and (d) show the galvanostatic cycling characteristics. (b) and (d) show the desired oxygen (O2) evolution during charging, and (c) and (f) show the corresponding carbon dioxide (CO2) evolution measured. Figure adapted with permission from [42], copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.
Figure 5 DEMS analysis of Li/O2 cells with different electrolyte compositions, namely a mixture of propylene carbonate and dimethoxyethane, PC:DME, (a–c) and pure dimethoxyethane, DME, (d–f). Furthermore, gold, platinum and manganese dioxide were tested as heterogeneous catalysts. (a) and (d) show the galvanostatic cycling characteristics. (b) and (d) show the desired oxygen (O2) evolution during charging, and (c) and (f) show the corresponding carbon dioxide (CO2) evolution measured. Figure adapted with permission from [42], copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Sketch by Thotiyl et al. illustrating their findings on the oxidation of the carbon electrode. At discharge at potentials below 3 V, mostly Li2O2 is electrochemically formed and accompanied by electrolyte decomposition. During recharge at potentials between 3.0 and 3.5 V, CO2 evolution is mainly related to electrolyte decomposition. Lastly, at potentials higher than 3.5 V, oxidation of the carbon electrode takes place. Figure adapted with permission from [83], copyright 2012 American Chemical Society.
Figure 6 Sketch by Thotiyl et al. illustrating their findings on the oxidation of the carbon electrode. At discharge at potentials below 3 V, mostly Li2O2 is electrochemically formed and accompanied by electrolyte decomposition. During recharge at potentials between 3.0 and 3.5 V, CO2 evolution is mainly related to electrolyte decomposition. Lastly, at potentials higher than 3.5 V, oxidation of the carbon electrode takes place. Figure adapted with permission from [83], copyright 2012 American Chemical Society.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 7 SEM image of toroidal Li2O2 nanoparticles on a carbon fiber (10 µm in diameter) that form as a discharge product in lithium–oxygen cells (C. L. Bender, JLU Giessen).
Figure 7 SEM image of toroidal Li2O2 nanoparticles on a carbon fiber (10 µm in diameter) that form as a discharge product in lithium–oxygen cells (C. L. Bender, JLU Giessen).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 8 Illustration of TEMPO as a redox mediator (RM) in an Li/O2 cell reversibly catalyzing the Li2O2 oxidation. Figure adapted with permission from [99], copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
Figure 8 Illustration of TEMPO as a redox mediator (RM) in an Li/O2 cell reversibly catalyzing the Li2O2 oxidation. Figure adapted with permission from [99], copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 9 Literature timeline of research papers on aprotic sodium–oxygen batteries (ranked after date of acceptance).
Figure 9 Literature timeline of research papers on aprotic sodium–oxygen batteries (ranked after date of acceptance).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 10 Sketch of the first room temperature sodium–oxygen cell and its discharge and charge potentials during the first ten cycles (left), Figure adapted with permission from [101], copyright 2012 Elsevier B.V. The voltage profile can be classified as Type 2C. Voltage profile of a sodium–oxygen cell with graphene nanosheets as cathode and NaPF6 in DME as electrolyte (Type 2C) (right). The discharge product was identified as sodium peroxide. Figure adapted with permission from [103], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 10 Sketch of the first room temperature sodium–oxygen cell and its discharge and charge potentials during the first ten cycles (left), Figure adapted with permission from [101], copyright 2012 Elsevier B.V. The voltage profile can be classified as Type 2C. Voltage profile of a sodium–oxygen cell with graphene nanosheets as cathode and NaPF6 in DME as electrolyte (Type 2C) (right). The discharge product was identified as sodium peroxide. Figure adapted with permission from [103], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 11 Discharge/charge curves (Type 1B) of a sodium–oxygen battery with NaO2 as discharge product. The main differences compared to Li/O2 cells are that only small overpotentials are observed and that the crystallite size of the discharge product is much larger (see SEM image on the right) [109].
Figure 11 Discharge/charge curves (Type 1B) of a sodium–oxygen battery with NaO2 as discharge product. The main differences compared to Li/O2 cells are that only small overpotentials are observed and that the crystallite size of the discharge product is much larger (see SEM image on the right) [109].CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 12 The thermodynamic landscape of (a) sodium– and (b) lithium–oxygen cells. All values are calculated for the reaction 2A + 2O2 → A2Oy + (2–y/2)O2, where y = 1,2,4. Figure adapted with permission from [27], copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH.
Figure 12 The thermodynamic landscape of (a) sodium– and (b) lithium–oxygen cells. All values are calculated for the reaction 2A + 2O2 → A2Oy + (2–y/2)O2, where y = 1,2,4. Figure adapted with permission from [27], copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 13 Voltage hysteresis of different carbon materials for the cathode of a sodium oxygen cell (left), figure adapted with permission from [27], copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH. SEM image of the oxygen electrode of a Na/O2 cell after discharge with Na2O2 and Na2CO3 as discharge product (right), figure adapted with permission from [105], copyright 2014 Elsevier.
Figure 13 Voltage hysteresis of different carbon materials for the cathode of a sodium oxygen cell (left), figure adapted with permission from [27], copyright 2014 Wiley-VCH. SEM image of the oxygen electrode of a Na/O2 cell after discharge with Na2O2 and Na2CO3 as discharge product (right), figure adapted with permission from [105], copyright 2014 Elsevier.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 14 Voltage profiles of Na/O2 cells under static gas atmosphere and flowing gas atmosphere (Type 1B/3B). Figure adapted with permission from [111], copyright 2014 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 14 Voltage profiles of Na/O2 cells under static gas atmosphere and flowing gas atmosphere (Type 1B/3B). Figure adapted with permission from [111], copyright 2014 The Royal Society of Chemistry.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 15 Literature overview on different studies of Na/O2 cells. The comparison shows the voltage profile of the first cycle. Data has been digitalized from the different publications. Only cells with NaO2 as discharge product show a defined voltage hysteresis, combined with low overpotentials and a defined end point during recharge. Please note that some groups measure in 3-electrode, others in 2-electrode configuration.
Figure 15 Literature overview on different studies of Na/O2 cells. The comparison shows the voltage profile of the first cycle. Data has been digitalized from the different publications. Only cells with NaO2 as discharge product show a defined voltage hysteresis, combined with low overpotentials and a defined end point during recharge. Please note that some groups measure in 3-electrode, others in 2-electrode configuration.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 16 (a) The Li–S phase diagram. (b) The Na–S phase diagram. Redrawn from references [129–130]. The Na–S phase diagram also depicts the operating window of the commercialized high temperature cell and alternative cell concepts operating at low temperature – including room temperature – that are on the research level.
Figure 16 (a) The Li–S phase diagram. (b) The Na–S phase diagram. Redrawn from references [129–130]. The Na–S phase diagram also depicts the operating window of the commercialized high temperature cell and alternative cell concepts operating at low temperature – including room temperature – that are on the research level.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 17 Schematic illustration of the reduction processes at the negative electrode during discharge of a Li/S8 battery. Reduction of sulfur S8 proceeds over several soluble polysulfide intermediates (Li2Sx) before the final precipitation of solid phases, Li2S and eventually Li2S2 occurs. The cell discharge can be also followed by UV–vis spectroscopy, as different polysulfides give rise to different coloration. Illustration adapted from [124].
Figure 17 Schematic illustration of the reduction processes at the negative electrode during discharge of a Li/S8 battery. Reduction of sulfur S8 proceeds over several soluble polysulfide intermediates (Li2Sx) before the final precipitation of solid phases, Li2S and eventually Li2S2 occurs. The cell discharge can be also followed by UV–vis spectroscopy, as different polysulfides give rise to different coloration. Illustration adapted from [124].CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 18 Schematic illustration of the polysulfide shuttle mechanism after Mikhaylik and Akridge [123]. Long polysulfides diffuse towards the lithium electrode where they are reduced to shorter polysulfides. Subsequently, these shorter polysulfides diffuse back to the positive electrode where they are oxidized. As a result, a cyclic process (“shuttle mechanism”) develops that corresponds to a chemical shortcut of the cell. Illustration adapted from [124].
Figure 18 Schematic illustration of the polysulfide shuttle mechanism after Mikhaylik and Akridge [123]. Long polysulfides diffuse towards the lithium electrode where they are reduced to shorter polysulfides. Subsequently, these shorter polysulfides diffuse back to the positive electrode where they are oxidized. As a result, a cyclic process (“shuttle mechanism”) develops that corresponds to a chemical shortcut of the cell. Illustration adapted from [124].CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 19 Typical voltage profile of a lithium/sulfur cell. A similar behavior can be expected for an analogous sodium/sulfur cell.
Figure 19 Typical voltage profile of a lithium/sulfur cell. A similar behavior can be expected for an analogous sodium/sulfur cell.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 20 Schematic diagram of the interconnected pore structure of mesoporous CMK-3 impregnated with sulfur (left). TEM image of the impregnated and the pristine (small inset) CMK-3. Figure adapted with permission from [178], copyright 2009 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Process of formation of S–TiO2 yolk–shell structures via core–shell formation and partial dissolution of sulfur (right) [180]. TEM image of the yolk–shell structure with nanoparticles of 800 nm size and shell thickness of 15 nm. Figure adapted with permission from [180], copyright 2013 Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Figure 20 Schematic diagram of the interconnected pore structure of mesoporous CMK-3 impregnated with sulfur (left). TEM image of the impregnated and the pristine (small inset) CMK-3. Figure adapted with permission from [178], copyright 2009 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Process of formation of S–TiO2 yolk–shell structures via core–shell formation and partial dissolution of sulfur (right) [180]. TEM image of the yolk–shell structure with nanoparticles of 800 nm size and shell thickness of 15 nm. Figure adapted with permission from [180], copyright 2013 Macmillan Publishers Ltd.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 21 Operando X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) measurements (left) during first charge and second discharge at 10C rate. The sulfur species denoted on top represent the proposed charge and discharge mechanism based on the measurements. Figure adapted with permission from [241], copyright 2013 American Chemical Society. In situ XRD patterns (right) during discharge and charge at 20C rate with corresponding voltage profiles (left). The * indicates packaging contribution to the patterns, red and blue lines indicate crystalline phases of sulfur and Li2S, respectively. Figure adapted with permission from [127], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 21 Operando X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) measurements (left) during first charge and second discharge at 10C rate. The sulfur species denoted on top represent the proposed charge and discharge mechanism based on the measurements. Figure adapted with permission from [241], copyright 2013 American Chemical Society. In situ XRD patterns (right) during discharge and charge at 20C rate with corresponding voltage profiles (left). The * indicates packaging contribution to the patterns, red and blue lines indicate crystalline phases of sulfur and Li2S, respectively. Figure adapted with permission from [127], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 22 Literature timeline of research papers on room temperature Na/S8 batteries (ranked after date of acceptance). Experimental studies: all journal publications in which full discharge–charge capacity profiles were shown for at least one complete cycle. The paper by Yu et al. [253] describes a related concept based on a catholyte.
Figure 22 Literature timeline of research papers on room temperature Na/S8 batteries (ranked after date of acceptance). Experimental studies: all journal publications in which full discharge–charge capacity profiles were shown for at least one complete cycle. The paper by Yu et al. [253] describes a related concept based on a catholyte.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 23 (a) First discharge–charge curve of a Na/S8 battery with liquid electrolyte at room temperature and analysis points of sulfur electrode such as (a) pristine, (b) discharged to 50 mAh/g sulfur in sloping region, (c) discharged to 200 mAh/g sulfur in plateau region, (d) fully discharged to 1.2 V and (e) fully charged to 2.3 V. (b) DSC curves of the sulfur electrode with various cut-off voltage conditions as shown in (a). Figure adapted with permission from [257], copyright 2011 Elsevier.
Figure 23 (a) First discharge–charge curve of a Na/S8 battery with liquid electrolyte at room temperature and analysis points of sulfur electrode such as (a) pristine, (b) discharged to 50 mAh/g sulfur in sloping region, (c) discharged to 200 mAh/g sulfur in plateau region, (d) fully discharged to 1.2 V and (e) fully charged to 2.3 V. (b) DSC curves of the sulfur electrode with various cut-off voltage conditions as shown in (a). Figure adapted with permission from [257], copyright 2011 Elsevier.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 24 (a) Voltage profiles a of Na/S8 cells with a TEGDME-based electrolyte and a nanostructured carbon/sulfur composite as cathode. Figure adapted with permission from [258], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Voltage profiles of a Na/S8 cell with DOL:DME-based electrolyte and a cathode based on commercial materials. (c) XPS spectra of the sulfur electrode after discharge. (d) Comparison ov voltage profiles recorded at a rate of 10C for Na/S8 cells with or without solid electrolyte. Figure adapted with permission from [259], copyright 2013 Elsevier.
Figure 24 (a) Voltage profiles a of Na/S8 cells with a TEGDME-based electrolyte and a nanostructured carbon/sulfur composite as cathode. Figure adapted with permission from [258], copyright 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Voltage profiles of a Na/S8 cell with DOL:DME-based electrolyte and a cathode based on commercial materials. (c) XPS spectra of the sulfur electrode after discharge. (d) Comparison ov voltage profiles recorded at a rate of 10C for Na/S8 cells with or without solid electrolyte. Figure adapted with permission from [259], copyright 2013 Elsevier.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 25 Room temperature sodium–sulfur battery based on shallow cycling between sulfur and soluble long chain polysulfides. An additional interlayer is used to reduce diffusion of polysulfides towards the sodium anode. Figure adapted with permission from [253], copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
Figure 25 Room temperature sodium–sulfur battery based on shallow cycling between sulfur and soluble long chain polysulfides. An additional interlayer is used to reduce diffusion of polysulfides towards the sodium anode. Figure adapted with permission from [253], copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 26 Literature overview on different studies of Na/S8 cells with liquid electrolyte operating at room temperature. The comparison shows the first cycle. The data was digitalized from the different publications. (a) Cells with ether-based electrolytes. (b) Cells with carbonate-based electrolytes. The dotted line indicates the lowest cell voltage possible assuming bulk thermodynamics for the solid state reaction from Na2S2 to Na2S. This reaction theoretically accounts for 836 mAh/g.
Figure 26 Literature overview on different studies of Na/S8 cells with liquid electrolyte operating at room temperature. The comparison shows the first cycle. The data was digitalized from the different publications. (a) Cells with ether-based electrolytes. (b) Cells with carbonate-based electrolytes. The dotted line indicates the lowest cell voltage possible assuming bulk thermodynamics for the solid state reaction from Na2S2 to Na2S. This reaction theoretically accounts for 836 mAh/g.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Aetukuri, 2014, arXiv [Condensed Matter - Materials Sciences], 1406.3335
  2. Doughty, 2011, Linden’s Handbook of Batteries
  3. Greenwood, 1997, Chemistry of the Elements
  4. 10.1007/s10008-014-2427-x · DOI

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Metadata

Authors
Adelhelm, P., Hartmann, P., Bender, C. L., Busche, M., Eufinger, C., & Janek, J.
Affiliations
Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen (DE)
Corresponding author
Adelhelm, Philipp
ORCID
Venue
Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
Publisher
Beilstein Institut
Published
2015-04-23
Volume
6
Pages
1016-1055
ISSN
2190-4286 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3762/bjnano.6.105
PMC
PMC4419580
OpenAlex
W2004683913
Cited by
478
References
255
Citations by year
2026: 26 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 10
FWCI
3.44
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Repository KITopen (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • KITopen (other-oa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Battery Materials and Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advancements in Battery Materials
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Thermal Expansion and Ionic Conductivity
Keywords
sodium-sulfur batteries, sodium-oxygen batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, lithium-oxygen batteries, room-temperature batteries, cell chemistry, ion transport, phase stability, electrode potential, energy density, rechargeable batteries

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