A Review on Electric Vehicles: Technologies and Challenges

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

95% of electric vehicles were sold in only 10 countries: China, USA, Japan, Canada, Norway, United Kingdom, France, Germany, The Netherlands, and Sweden.

“95% of the electric vehicles were sold in only 10 countries (i.e., China, USA, Japan, Canada, Norway, United Kingdom, France, Germany, The Netherlands, and Sweden).”

May combine two claims.

Norway has the highest EV market share in the world, with almost three out of four vehicles sold in 2020 being electric.

“Norway stands out as the country in the world, in which EVs have a higher market share as almost three out of four vehicles sold in 2020 are electric.”

May combine two claims.

Regarding specific energy and energy density, lead-acid and nickel batteries stand out negatively, while lithium-ion batteries are by far the more valuable.

“Regarding the specific energy and the energy density, lead-acid (Pb-PbO 2 ) and Nickel (Ni-Cd, Ni-MH) batteries stand out negatively, while the more valuable batteries are, by far, the lithiumion ones.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The capacity of EV batteries is continuously growing, and vehicles with more than 100 kWh batteries are expected very soon.

“As shown, the capacity of batteries is continuously growing and vehicles with more that 100 kWh batteries are expected very soon.”

May combine two claims.

Regarding specific power, lead and zinc batteries offer worse results up to 100 W/kg, while Ni-MH batteries reach a maximum of 1000 W/kg and Li-ion batteries offer up to 3000 W/kg.

“Concerning the specific power, lead and zinc batteries offer worse results (up to 100 W/kg), while the kinds of batteries with the best scores are those of Ni-MH (with a maximum of 1000 W/kg), and Li-ion, which offer up to 3000 W/kg.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As far as cell voltage, nickel and zinc batteries have lower voltage, while sodium batteries (Na-S and Na-NiCl) and Li-ion use a higher voltage.

“As far as the cells voltage, batteries that are formed by nickel and zinc are the ones with lower voltage, while sodium batteries (Na-S y Na-NiCl) and Li-ion use a higher voltage.”

May combine two claims.

In their most powerful modes, SAE-J1772 supports a maximum intensity of 200 A, compared to 250 A for GB/T-20234 and 400 A for IEC-62196.

“However, in their most powerful modes, the SAE-J1772 only supports a 200 A maximum intensity, as compared to 250 A of the GB/T-20234 and 400 A of the IEC-62196.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tesla superchargers can charge the Model S up to 50% in only 20 minutes, or 80% in half an hour.

“Tesla superchargers can charge the Model S up to 50% in only 20 min, or 80% in half an hour [7].”

• cites [7] Tesla (2021, February 21). Tesla Official Website. Available online: https://www.tesla.com/en_EU/supercharger.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Nissan Leaf has a maximum driving range of 364 km.

“the Nissan Leaf has a maximum driving range of 364 km [6]”

• cites [6] Nissan (2021, February 20). Nissan Leaf. Available online: https://www.nissan.co.uk/vehicles/new-vehicles/leaf/range-charging.html.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

EV sales numbers are expected to keep increasing within the next years, since several countries have expressed their desire to ban internal combustion engine vehicles in the near future.

“According to [42][43][44][45][46][47][48], these numbers are expected to keep increasing within the next years, since several countries have expressed their desire to ban internal combustion engine vehicles in the near future.”

• cites [42] CNN (2021, February 18). These Countries Want to Ban Gas and Diesel Cars. Available online: http://money.cnn.com/2017/09/11/autos/countries-banning-diesel-gas-cars/index.html.Not checked yet

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• cites [43] The Times of Israel (2021, February 20). Israel Aims to Eliminate Use of Coal, Gasoline and Diesel by 2030. Available online: https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-aims-to-eliminate-use-of-coal-gasoline-and-diesel-by-2030/.Not checked yet

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• cites [44] NLTimes (2021, February 20). New Dutch Government’s Plans for the Coming Years. Available online: https://nltimes.nl/2017/10/10/new-dutch-governments-plans-coming-years.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Worldwide production of batteries for EVs has increased 66%.

“the worldwide production of batteries for EVs has increased 66% [50]”

• cites [50] Inside-EVs (2021, February 21). EV Battery Makers 2016: Panasonic and BYD Combine to Hold Majority of Market. Available online: https://insideevs.com/ev-battery-makers-2016-panasonic-and-byd-combine-to-hold-majority-of-market/.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Total well-to-wheel efficiency of gasoline vehicles ranges from 11% to 27%, whereas diesel vehicles range from 25% to 37%.

“total WTW efficiency of gasoline vehicles ranges from 11% to 27%, whereas diesel vehicles range from 25% to 37% [3].”

• cites [3] Albatayneh, 2020, Comparison of the Overall Energy Efficiency for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles and Electric Vehicles, Environ. Clim. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The main drawback of EVs is their autonomy.

“The main drawback of the EVs is their autonomy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The transport sector is responsible for nearly 28% of total carbon dioxide emissions, and road transport accounts for over 70% of the transport sector emissions.

“according to a report by the European Union, the transport sector is responsible for nearly 28% of the total carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, while the road transport is accountable for over 70% of the transport sector emissions [1].”

• cites [1] European Commission (2021, February 21). Transport in Figures’—Statistical Pocketbook. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/facts-fundings/statistics/pocketbook-2011_en/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A recent OECD study suggests that, at least in terms of particulate matter emissions, EVs will not improve the air quality situation.

“there was a recent OECD study that suggests that, at least in terms of Particulate Matter (PM) emissions, EVs will unfortunately not improve the air quality situation [4].”

• cites [4] OECD iLibrary (2020). Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge, OECD Publishing. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1787/4a4dc6ca-en. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Tesla Model S can reach more than 500 km.

“the Tesla Model S can reach more than 500 km [7].”

• cites [7] Tesla (2021, February 21). Tesla Official Website. Available online: https://www.tesla.com/en_EU/supercharger.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Lead-acid and lithium batteries are the best at withstanding low temperatures, as they can load temperatures up to -20 °C, although in lithium-ion batteries low temperatures seriously affect capacity and cause self-discharge.

“In that regard, lead-acid and lithium batteries are the best that put up with low temperatures, as they can load temperatures up to -20 • C, although, in the case of Li-Ion batteries, low temperatures seriously affect its capacity, causing self-discharge [72].”

• cites [72] Plitz, 2003, A comparative study of Li-ion battery, supercapacitor and nonaqueous asymmetric hybrid devices for automotive applications, J. Power Sources sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The IEC-62196 norm derives from IEC-61851 and provides a first classification of charging type according to nominal power and charging time.

“This norm derives from the IEC-61851 and it provides a first classification of the charging type according to its nominal power and, thus, of the charging time [74,75].”

• cites [74] International Electrotechnical Commission (2014). Plugs, Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Couplers and Vehicle Inlets—Conductive Charging of Electric Vehicles—Part 1: General Requirements, IEC. Standard.Not checked yet

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• cites [75] Sbordone, 2015, EV fast charging stations and energy storage technologies: A real implementation in the smart micro grid paradigm, Electr. Power Syst. Res. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The in-line routing method suggested by Adler and Mirchandani would reduce waiting time by more than 35%.

“Such a method would reduce the waiting time more than 35%.”

• cites [61] Adler, 2014, Online routing and battery reservations for electric vehicles with swappable batteries, Transp. Res. Part B: Methodol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The increase in EV models, different battery types, and lack of standardization make BESs not feasible because all vehicles served by BESs should use identical batteries.

“However, the increase of the number of EV models, as well as the different types of batteries and the lack of standardization, are not making the use of BESs a feasible process, since all of the vehicles served by BES should use identical batteries [65].”

• cites [65] Jing, W., Yan, Y., Kim, I., and Sarvi, M. (2016). Electric vehicles: A review of network modelling and future research needs. Adv. Mech. Eng., 8. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV provides a 12 kWh battery, which allows it to drive around 50 km just with the electric engine.

“The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV [25] provides a 12 kWh battery, which allows it to drive around 50 km just with the electric engine.”

• cites [25] Mitsubishi Motors (2021, February 17). Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV 2018. Available online: https://www.mitsubishicars.com/outlander-phev/2018/specifications.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Lower battery cost would have a direct impact on EV price drop, making EVs more competitive with traditional vehicles.

“The lower battery cost would have an obviously direct impact on EV price drop, which makes them more competitive with regard to traditional vehicles.”

May combine two claims.

Tesla Motors is building a Gigafactory in order to cut down on production costs and raise the manufacturing of batteries.

“Tesla Motors is building a “Gigafactory” in order to cut down on the production costs and raise the manufacturing of batteries.”

• cites [53] Tesla (2021, February 21). Gigafactory. Available online: https://www.tesla.com/esES/blog/gigafactory.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lithium-ion batteries have an optimum functioning temperature of 40 °C.

“In fact, this type of battery has an optimum functioning temperature of 40 • C.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The IEC-62196 standard establishes the general characteristics of the charging process and the way energy is supplied.

“The IEC-62196 establishes the general characteristics of the charging process, as well as the way in which the energy is supplied.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Lithium-ion batteries are the most used today by the majority of EVs and PHEVs.

“This type of battery is the most used today by the majority of EVs and PHEVs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In North America and the Pacific zone, the SAE-J1772 standard for loading electric vehicles is used.

“More specifically, in North America, and in the Pacific zone, the SAE-J1772 standard for loading electric vehicles is used.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sodium sulfur batteries can reach functioning temperatures between 300 and 350 °C.

“However, they can reach functioning temperatures of between 300 and 350 • C [70].”

• cites [70] Sudworth, J., and Tiley, A. (1985). Sodium Sulphur Battery, Springer.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Nickel-metal-hydride batteries have a higher self-discharge level than nickel-cadmium batteries and are used by many hybrid vehicles.

“Although they present a higher level of self discharge than those of nickel-cadmium, these batteries are used by many hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius and the second version of the GM EV1.”

May combine two claims.

Nickel-cadmium batteries were used in the 1990s, have greater energy density, but present high memory effect, low lifespan, and cadmium is expensive and polluting.

“This technology was used in the 90s, as these batteries have a greater energy density [66], but they present high memory effect, low lifespan, and cadmium is a very expensive and polluting element.”

• cites [66] Haschka, F., and Schlieck, D. (1986, January 9–12). High power nickel-cadmium cells with fiber electrodes (FNC). Proceedings of the 32nd International Power Sources Symposium, Cherry Hill, NJ, USA.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The IEC-62196 standard is an international standard created by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 2001 for charging electrical vehicles in Europe and China.

“The IEC-62196 standard [74] is an international standard created by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2001 for charging electrical vehicles in Europe and China.”

• cites [74] International Electrotechnical Commission (2014). Plugs, Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Couplers and Vehicle Inlets—Conductive Charging of Electric Vehicles—Part 1: General Requirements, IEC. Standard.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Charging standards for electric vehicles are determined mainly by the region in which they are used or applied.

“When charging electric vehicles, we can find different standards, which are determined, mainly, by the region in which they are being used or applied.”

May combine two claims.

Standard power outlets provide around 3 kW power, which implies an average 10 h load to charge a maximum of 30 kWh in an EV battery.

“The standard power outlets provide around 3 kW power, which would imply a 10 h load on average for charging a maximum of 30 kWh energy in a battery [55].”

• cites [55] Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (2007). Hybrid Electric and Battery Electric Vehicles, AEA Energy & Environment.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most of the used hydrogen is extracted from natural gas, although there is green hydrogen.

“although there is green hydrogen, most of the used hydrogen is extracted from natural gas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yang et al. presented a dynamic operation model of BSSs in the electric market that acquires extra incomes when actively responding to electricity price fluctuation.

“Yang et al. [63] presented a dynamic operation model of BSSs in the electric market, acquiring extra incomes when actively responding to the price fluctuation in the electricity market.”

• cites [63] Yang, 2014, Dynamic operation model of the battery swapping station for EV (electric vehicle) in electricity market, Energy sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Storandt and Funke approached the EV routing problem to find destinations accessible from a location according to the vehicle's current battery level and the availability of charging or exchange battery stations.

“Storandt and Funke [64] approached the EVs routing problem with the aim of finding out what destinations are accessible from a particular location according to the current battery level of the vehicle and the availability of charging or exchange battery stations.”

• cites [64] Storandt, S., and Funke, S. (2012, January 22–26). Cruising with a Battery-Powered Vehicle and Not Getting Stranded. Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and the Twenty-Fourth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lithium-ion batteries employ a lithium salt as electrolyte that provides ions for the reversible electrochemical reaction between cathode and anode.

“These batteries employ, as electrolyte, a lithium salt that provides the necessary ions for the reversible electrochemical reaction that takes place between the cathode and anode.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Zinc-bromine batteries use a zinc-bromine solution stored in two tanks, in which bromide turns into bromine in the positive electrode.

“These kinds of batteries use a zinc-bromine solution stored in two tanks, and in which bromide turns into bromine in the positive electrode.”

May combine two claims.

Sodium chloride and nickel batteries can offer up to 30% more energy at low temperatures, although their optimum operating range is between 260 °C and 300 °C.

“Their advantage is that they can offer up to 30% more energy in low temperatures, although its optimum operating range is between 260 • C and 300 • C.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The BMW i3 has a 42.2 kWh battery that results in a 260 km autonomy in electric mode, and users can benefit an additional 130 km from the extended-range mode.

“An example of this type of vehicles is the BMW i3 [29], which has a 42.2 kWh battery that results in a 260 km autonomy in electric mode, and users can benefit an additional 130 km from the extended-range mode.”

• cites [29] insideEVs (2021, February 21). 2019 BMW i3, i3 REx, i3s & i3s REx: Full Specs. Available online: https://insideevs.com/2019-bmw-i3-rex-i3s-rex-full-spec/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Hyundai Nexo FCEV is able to travel 650 km without refueling.

“The Hyundai Nexo FCEV [28] is an example of this type of vehicles, being able to travel 650 km without refueling.”

• cites [28] Hyundai (2021, February 21). All-New Hyundai NEXO—Technical Specifications. Available online: https://www.hyundai.news/eu/press-kits/all-new-hyundai-nexo-technical-specifications/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SAE-J1772 standard is common in the USA and Japan and establishes AC Level 1, AC Level 2, DC Level 1, and DC Level 2 charging modes.

“This standard is common in USA and Japan, and it establishes the following charging modes (see Table 4):”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sodium sulfur batteries contain liquid sodium and sulfur.

“Sodium sulfur batteries (Na-S), which contain sodium liquid (Na) and sulfur (S).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SAE-J1772 mode is a North American standard of electric connectors for electric vehicles created in 1996 and supported by SAE International.

“The SAE-J1772 [73] mode is a North American standard of electric connectors for electric vehicles created in 1996, and supported by SAE International.”

• cites [73] SAE International (2009). Vehicle Architecture for Data Communications Standards—Class B Data Communications Network Interface, SAE International. Standard.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adler and Mirchandani suggested an in-line routing method for electric vehicles that allows changing batteries in BESs using Markov random decision processes.

“Adler and Mirchandani [61] suggested an in-line routing method for electric vehicles that allows for changing the batteries in BEs using Markov's random decision processes.”

• cites [61] Adler, 2014, Online routing and battery reservations for electric vehicles with swappable batteries, Transp. Res. Part B: Methodol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Europe, the IEC-62196 standard was introduced.

“However, in China, the GB/T 20234 standard is used, whereas, in Europe, the IEC-62196 standard was introduced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sodium sulfur battery materials have a very low cost.

“In addition, their advantage is that these materials have a very low cost.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

IEC-62196 provides users with four modes to charge vehicles.

“Users are provided with four modes in order to charge the vehicles (see Table 5).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A typical BEV reaches from 160 to 250 km, although some can travel as far as 500 km with just one charge.

“A typical BEV will reach from 160 to 250 km, although some of them can travel as far as 500 km with just one charge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Nickel-metal-hydride batteries use an alloy that stores hydrogen for negative electrodes instead of cadmium.

“In this type of batteries, an alloy that stores hydrogen is used for negative electrodes instead of cadmium (Cd) [67].”

• cites [67] Maggetto, G., and Mierlo, J.V. (2000, January 11). Electric and electric hybrid vehicle technology: A survey. Proceedings of the IEE Seminar Electric, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles (Ref. No. 2000/050), Durham, UK. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main difference between the SAE-J1772, GB/T 20234, and IEC-62196 standards is that the first two classify charging modes according to power type (DC or AC), while IEC-62196 classifies modes by charging power.

“The main difference between these three standards is that while the two former ones classify the charging modes according to the power type (DC or AC power), the latter one classifies such modes by the charging power involved.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

SAE-J1772 DC Level 1 uses an external charger with a maximum voltage of 500 V DC and a maximum intensity of 80 A, providing a maximum power of 40 kW.

“External charger that by inserting a maximum voltage of 500 V DC with a maximum intensity of 80 A, it provides a maximum power of 40 kW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mak et al. proposed robust optimization models to help battery exchange planning.

“Mak et al. [62] proposed robust optimization models that help the process of the battery exchange planning.”

• cites [62] Mak, 2013, Infrastructure planning for electric vehicles with battery swapping, Manag. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IEC-62196 Mode 1 is a domestic slow charging mode with a maximum intensity of 16 A using a standard single-phase or three-phase power outlet.

“It is defined as a domestic charging mode, with a maximum intensity of 16 A, and it uses a standard single-phase or three-phase power outlet with phase(s), neutral, and protective earth conductors.”

May combine two claims.

Exceeding the temperature and voltage windows of lithium-ion batteries causes quick mitigation of battery performance and can result in a security hazard such as fire or explosion, as from 150 °C electrolytes start to destroy themselves.

“Exceeding the restrictions of these windows will cause a quick mitigation of the battery performance and even result in a security hazard (e.g., catch fire or even explode), as from 150 • C electrolytes start to destroy themselves [71].”

• cites [71] Lu, 2013, A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles, J. Power Sources sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sodium chloride and nickel batteries, also called Zebra, are very similar to sodium sulfur batteries.

“Also being referred to as Zebra, they are very similar to sodium sulfur batteries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PHEV fuel consumption is higher than indicated by car manufacturers.

“PHEVs fuel consumption is higher than indicated by car manufacturers [26].”

• cites [26] Plötz, P., Moll, C., Bieker, G., Mock, P., and Li, Y. (2020). Real-World Usage of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Fuel Consumption, Electric Driving, and CO2 Emissions, International Council on Clean Transportation Europe (ICCT). Available online: https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/PHEV-white%20paper-sept2020-0.pdf.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Sodium sulfur batteries have high energy density, high loading and unloading efficiency of 89-92%, and a long life cycle.

“This type of battery has a high energy density, high loading and unloading efficiency (89-92%), and a long life cycle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In China, the GB/T 20234 standard is used.

“However, in China, the GB/T 20234 standard is used, whereas, in Europe, the IEC-62196 standard was introduced.”

May combine two claims.

When considering all analyzed parameters, current electric vehicles rely on lithium-ion technology for their batteries because this technology presents the best performance in almost all analyzed characteristics.

“When considering all of the above parameters, current electric vehicles rely on lithium ion technology for their batteries, as this technology presents the best performance in almost all of the analyzed characteristics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Nissan Leaf is 100% electric and currently provides a 62 kWh battery that allows an autonomy of 360 km.

“the Nissan Leaf [24], which is 100% electric and it currently provides a 62 kWh battery that allows users to have an autonomy of 360 km.”

• cites [24] insideEVs (2021, February 17). Nissan Reveals LEAF e-Plus: 62 kWh Battery, 226-Mile Range. Available online: https://insideevs.com/nissan-reveals-leaf-e-plus-ces/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Toyota Prius, in its hybrid model (4th generation), provided a 1.3 kWh battery that theoretically allowed an autonomy as far as 25 km in its all-electric mode.

“The Toyota Prius, in its hybrid model (4th generation), provided a 1.3 kWh battery that theoretically allowed it an autonomy as far as 25 km in its all-electric mode [27].”

• cites [27] The Car Guide (2021, February 21). 2014 Toyota Prius PHV: To Plug in or Not to Plug in?. Available online: https://www.guideautoweb.com/en/articles/21152/2014-toyota-prius-phv-to-plug-in-or-not-to-plug-in/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

SAE-J1772 AC Level 2 uses a standard electrical outlet with 240 V AC and a maximum intensity of 80 A, giving a maximum power of 19.2 kW.

“Standard electrical outlet with 240 V AC and a maximum intensity of 80 A, so it offers a maximum power of 19.2 kW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

SAE-J1772 DC Level 2 uses an external charger with a maximum voltage of 500 V DC and a maximum intensity of 200 A, providing a maximum power of 100 kW.

“External charger that, by inserting a maximum voltage of 500 V DC with a maximum intensity of 200 A, provides a maximum power of 100 kW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tesla created a battery exchange system for its Model S in which batteries can be exchanged in only 90 s.

“Thinking about this strategy, Tesla created a system in their Model S, in which batteries can be exchanged in only 90 s [59].”

• cites [59] CNN (2021, February 21). Tesla Unveils 90-Second Battery-Pack Swap. Available online: http://money.cnn.com/2013/06/21/autos/tesla-battery-swap/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

SAE-J1772 AC Level 1 uses a standard electrical outlet providing 120 V AC with a maximum intensity of 16 A, giving a maximum power of 1.9 kW.

“Standard electrical outlet that provides voltage in AC of 120 V offering a maximum intensity of 16 A, which serves a maximum power of 1.9 kW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IEC-62196 Mode 2 is a semi-fast charging mode usable at home or in public areas with a defined maximum intensity of 32 A using standardized power outlets.

“This mode can be used at home or in public areas, its defined maximum intensity is of 32 A, and, similar to the previous mode, it uses standardized power outlets with phase(s), neutral, and protective earth conductors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mak et al. analyzed battery standardization and technological development in the optimal strategy for deploying battery exchange infrastructures.

“The authors also analyzed the possibility of battery standardization and technological development in the optimal strategy for deploying the infrastructures.”

• cites [62] Mak, 2013, Infrastructure planning for electric vehicles with battery swapping, Manag. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The GB/T-20234 standard was created by Guobiao Standards for charging infrastructures of electric vehicles in China.

“Guobiao Standards (GB) created the GB/T-20234 standard for charging infrastructures of electric vehicles in China.”

May combine two claims.

Shang et al. also proposed a compact heater based upon resonant switched capacitors powered by the on-board battery pack, leading to easy implementation and able to increase temperature up to 2.67 °C/min with high efficiency of 96.4%.

“In [91], they also proposed a compact heater, based upon resonant switched capacitors (RSCs) that are powered by the on-board battery pack, leading to an easy implementation, which is able to increase up to 2.67 °C/min.with a high efficiency (96.4%).”

• cites [91] Shang, 2020, A Compact Resonant Switched-Capacitor Heater for Lithium-Ion Battery Self-Heating at Low Temperatures, IEEE Trans. Power Electron. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For the United States, Tesla designed its own connector.

“For the United States, Tesla designed their own connector.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Type 2 Mennekes has 7 pins: four for power in three-phase mode, one ground connection, and two pins to communicate with the vehicle.

“This connector has 7 pins, i.e., four for the power (in three-phase mode), one ground connection, and two pins to communicate with the vehicle (blockage and communications).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CHAdeMO is added to numerous vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, Nissan e-NV200, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, and KIA Soul EV.

“In fact, it is added to numerous vehicles, such as in the Nissan Leaf, the Nissan e-NV200, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, and the KIA Soul EV.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IEC-62196 Mode 4 is an ultra-fast charging mode published in IEC-62196-3 that defines a direct connection of the EV to the DC supply network with up to 400 A and a maximum voltage of 1000 V, providing a maximum charging power up to 400 kW.

“Published in the IEC-62196-3, it defines a direct connection of the EV to the DC supply network with a power intensity of up to 400 A and a maximum voltage of 1000 V, which provides a maximum charging power up to 400 kW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Nowadays CHAdeMO chargers have been designed with 150 kW power and aim to reach 350 kW.

“Nowadays, CHAdeMO chargers have already been designed with 150 kW power, and they aim to reach 350 kW [84].”

• cites [84] CHAdeMO Association (2016). CHAdeMO Announces High Power (150 KW) Version of the Protocol, CHAdeMO Association. Technical Report.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When faster charges are required, Electric Vehicle Charging Stations must be used because they can directly supply DC power to the batteries.

“However, when requiring faster charges, Electric Vehicle Charging Stations must be used, since they can directly supply DC power to the batteries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The GB/T 20234 standard considers two kinds of connectors.

“The GB/T 20234 considers two kinds of connectors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Xing et al. present a review of BMS for Battery Electric and Hybrid Vehicles considering state of charge, state of health, and state of life as key features.

“Other authors, such as Xing et al. [88], present a review of BMS for Battery Electric (BEVs) and Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) when considering the state of charge, the state of health, and the state of life, as the key features to be considered by BMSs.”

• cites [88] Xing, 2011, Battery management systems in electric and hybrid vehicles, Energies sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BMS equalizes the charge on all cells in the chain to extend the overall life of the battery pack.

“In particular, it equalizes the charge on all cells in the chain to extend the overall life of the battery pack.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Currently there are 1604 Tesla stations and a total of 14,081 superchargers around the world.

“Currently, there are 1604 stations and a total of 14,081 superchargers around the world [7].”

• cites [7] Tesla (2021, February 21). Tesla Official Website. Available online: https://www.tesla.com/en_EU/supercharger.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BMS is responsible for managing the energy provided by the batteries to guarantee their safety and reliability.

“More specifically, BMS is responsible for managing the energy that is provided by the batteries with the aim of guaranteeing their safety and reliability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Electric vehicles have an AC/DC converter that allows charging their batteries at home through traditional outlets.

“Electric vehicles have an AC/DC converter that allows charging their batteries at home through the use of traditional outlets (e.g., the Schuko in Europe).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 1 (SAE-J1772-2009) Yazaki AC charging is included in the SAE-J1772 standard and IEC-62196-2, is commonly found in charging equipment for EVs in North America and Japan, and is used by many vehicles including the Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Toyota Prius Prime, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Ford Focus Electric, Tesla Roadster, and Tesla Model S.

“With the aim of finding a standardized connector, the Type 1 AC charging, apart from being included in the SAE-J1772 standard, was also included in the IEC-62196-2.In fact, this connector is commonly found in charging equipments for EVs in North America and Japan [80], and it is used by a great amount of vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt, the Toyota Prius Prime, the Mitsubishi”

• cites [80] Phoenix Contact (2015). Solutions for E-Mobility, Phoenix Contact. Available online: http://www.mouser.com/pdfdocs/PhoenixContactsolutionsbrochurefore-mobility.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tesla has its own fast charging points called Supercharger Stations.

“It is also worth noting the case of Tesla Company, which, although it is not an international standard itself, it has its own fast charging points, called Supercharger Stations.”

May combine two claims.

The GB/T 20234 AC connector is physically the same as the IEC Type 2 or Mennekes connector, although they are incompatible with European vehicles that use the same connector because they use different protocols.

“The connector used for charges based on AC is physically the same used in the IEC Type 2 or the Mennekes (see Figure 7c), although they are incompatible with the European vehicles that use the same connector, as they use different protocols.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CHAdeMO has ten pins: two for DC power supply, one for ground connection, and seven pins for communicating with the network.

“This connector has ten pins, two for DC power supply, one for ground connection, and seven pins for communicating with the network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BMS maintains cell balancing by compensating the load of the weaker cell.

“According to this, the BMS maintains cell balancing by compensating the load of the weaker cell.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Another important task of BMSs is measuring the state of charge and computing the driving range.

“Another important task of BMSs is measuring the state of charge and computing the driving range.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Charging Stations can supply electricity through different connectors depending on the standard supported, and they are sealed, carry a blockage, enable communication with the vehicle, do not supply electricity until the blockage system is activated, prevent the vehicle from moving while plugged, and some can charge in three-phase mode.

“Charging Stations can supply electricity through different connectors, depending on the standard supported, and they present the following advantages:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BMS prevents individual cells from becoming overstressed.

“In this way, BMS prevents individual cells from becoming overstressed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Zhang et al.'s simulations, EV velocity and motor torque distribution are optimized by a nonlinear predictive controller model to reduce energy consumption.

“In their simulations, EV velocity and motor torque distribution are optimized by a nonlinear predictive controller model to reduce energy consumption.”

• cites [89] Zhang, 2017, Predictive Energy Management Strategy for Fully Electric Vehicles Based on Preceding Vehicle Movement, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The GB/T-20234 standard classifies charging modes between AC and DC.

“This standard classifies the charging modes between AC and DC, as shown in Table 6.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Europe, Tesla adopted the Mennekes connector, slightly modified to perform both domestic AC charge and ultra-fast DC charges in their Superchargers.

“In Europe, Tesla adopted the Mennekes connector, although slightly modified in order to perform both domestic charge (AC) and ultra-fast charges (DC) in their Superchargers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Renault Zoe can be charged with the Mennekes connector up to 43 kWh.

“An example of a vehicle that uses this connector is the Renault Zoe, which can be charged with the Mennekes connector up to 43 kWh.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The IEC-62196 adopted the specifications of the connectors of the IEC 60309 standard in its second version IEC-62196-2, published by the IEC in October 2011.

“The IEC-62196 adopted the specifications of the connectors of the IEC 60309 standard, including them in its second version (IEC-62196-2), which was published by the IEC in October of 2011.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Tesla's superchargers work in DC and use their own system, whose patents have been mostly released.

“Tesla's superchargers work in DC and use their own system, whose patents have been mostly released.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cell balancing is critical for EVs' high-powered battery packs because a long series of individual cells is only as reliable as the weakest cell.

“Cell balancing is also critical for EVs' high-powered battery packs, because a long series of individual cells is only as reliable as the weakest cell.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 2 Mennekes in single-phase is limited up to 230 V, but in three-phase it is able to hold high voltages and intensities.

“In singlephase it is limited up to 230 V, but, in three-phase, is able to hold high voltages and intensities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hauser and Kuhn present the requirements that a BMS should cover: data acquisition, data processing and storage, electrical management, thermal management, safety management, and communication.

“For instance, Hauser and Kuhn [87] present the requirements that a BMS should cover: (i) data acquisition, (ii) data processing and storage, (iii) electrical management, (iv) thermal management, (v) safety management, and (vi) communication.”

• cites [87] Hauser, A., and Kuhn, R. (2015). High-voltage battery management systems (BMS) for electric vehicles. Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Thermal management is one of the most important blocks in BMSs.

“One of the most important blocks in BMSs is thermal management, as can be observed in Figure 8.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tesla employs two different connectors for fast charging depending on whether the vehicles are sold in Europe or the United States.

“Finally, Tesla employs two different connectors for the fast charging of their vehicles, when considering whether the vehicles are sold in Europe (see Figure 7c) or in the United States (see Figure 7h).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 2 (VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2) Mennekes was originally designed for the industrial sector and not specifically for EVs.

“It was originally designed to be used in the industrial sector, so it was not specifically designed for EVs (see Figure 7c).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

China initially adopted the European standard IEC-62196, but the use of its own standard GB/T-20234 is being promoted.

“Although China initially adopted the European standard IEC-62196, the use of their own standard, such as the GB/T-20234, is being promoted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The battery management system is a key system designed to manage and control the battery unit in EVs and PHEVs.

“Hence, the battery management system (BMS) is a key system that is designed to manage and control the battery unit in this kind of vehicle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Auxiliary devices such as headlamps, the dashboard, and the cooling/heating unit draw power from the battery pack.

“Auxiliary devices, such as headlamps, the dashboard, and the cooling/heating unit, also draw power from the battery pack.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Current BMSs comprise multiple blocks, such as power delivery unity, sensors, and communication channels, integrated together.

“Current BMSs comprise of multiple blocks, such as power delivery unity, sensors, and communication channels, integrated together.”

May combine two claims.

Although Tesla affirms that its superchargers are ultra-fast charging points, under the IEC-62196 criterion these charging points are equal to Mode 3 (fast charging).

“Although Tesla affirms that its superchargers are ultra-fast charging points, if we consider the IEC-62196 criterion (see Table 5), these charging points would be equal to a Mode 3 (fast charging).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Smarter managing of auxiliary energy demands would result in better power delivery without reducing power train efficiency.

“A smarter managing of these energy demands would result in a better power delivery without reducing the power train efficiency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CHAdeMO is designed to supply fast charges in DC.

“CHAdeMO is designed to supply fast charges in DC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 3 (EV Plug Alliance connector) Scame is a single-phase and three-phase connector designed by the EV Plug Alliance in 2010.

“Single-phase and three-phase connector, designed by the EV Plug Alliance in 2010.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There currently exists a wide range of connectors for charging electric vehicles, defined by SAE in the US and part of the Pacific, IEC mainly in Europe, and GB in China.

“There currently exists a wide range of connectors for charging electric vehicles.These connectors are defined by the different standards: the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is in charge of its normalization in the US and in part of the Pacific countries; the IEC is responsible for its standardization in a great part of the countries in the world, mainly in Europe; and, the Guobiao Standards”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 3 Scame supplies 230 V/400 V and from 16 to 63 A.

“It supplies 230 V/400 V and from 16 to 63 A [83].”

• cites [83] Scamme (2021, February 21). Libera—Scame Parre s.p.a. Technical Report. Available online: http://www.scame.com/doc/ZP00833-IB-1.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tesla's Supercharger Stations are installed in main routes every 200 km.

“Tesla's Supercharger Stations are being installed in main routes every 200 km.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The AC version of the J1772-2009 connector was designed for single-phase electric systems with 120 V or 240 V and consists of five pins: two AC pins, ground connection, proximity detection, and pilot control.

“The AC version (see Figure 7a) was designed for single-phase electric systems with 120 V or 240 V, and they consist of five pins:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The BMS is the central controller preventing sudden abruption in current and thus avoiding high discharge rates.

“BMS is the central controller preventing sudden abruption in current, and thus avoiding high discharge rates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A second version of the connector is designed for fast charge, allowing charging time to be drastically reduced and charging vehicle batteries up to 80% in 20 min.

“There exists a second version of the connector that is designed to perform a fast charge.This allows the charging time to be drastically reduced, charging the batteries of a vehicle up to the 80% in 20 min.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

J1772-2009 connectors include different protection levels and can be used in rainy conditions.

“J1772-2009 connectors include different protection levels, and they can even be used in rainy conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

France and Italy suggested the use of Type 3 connectors for their vehicles, but due to poor acceptance the production of Type 3 connectors has been abandoned.

“France and Italy suggested the use of this connector for their vehicles (see Figure 7e), but, due to the poor acceptance, the production of Type 3 connectors has been finally abandoned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Auxiliary devices are not smart and do not communicate with the BMS.

“However, these devices are not smart, nor do they communicate with BMS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

On 8 February 2018, there existed 7133 CHAdeMO charging points in Japan, 6022 in Europe, and 2290 in the USA.

“On the 8th of February of 2018, there existed 7133 CHAdeMO charging points in Japan, 6022 in Europe, and 2290 in the USA [85].”

• cites [85] CHAdeMO Association (2021, February 21). CHAdeMO’s Fast Charging Station in the World. Available online: http://www.chademo.com/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tesla superchargers have a maximum charging power of 145 kWh, currently limited to 120 kWh, which allows charging half of a Model S battery in 20 min or 80% in half an hour.

“Although they have a maximum charging power of 145 kWh, such power is currently limited to 120 kWh, which allows for charging half of the battery of a Model S in only 20 min., or 80% in half an hour [7].”

• cites [7] Tesla (2021, February 21). Tesla Official Website. Available online: https://www.tesla.com/en_EU/supercharger.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

IEC-62196 suggests four types of plugs: Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, and Type 4.

“More specifically, it suggests four types of plugs:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In its first versions, CHAdeMO held up to 400 V and started the charge with up to 200 A.

“In its first versions, it held up to 400 V, starting the charge with up to 200 A.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 4 (EVS G105-1993) CHAdeMO is promoted by TEPCO, commonly found in EV charging equipment in Japan, and also used in Europe and USA.

“Promoted by TEPCO (Tokyo Electric Power Company), it is commonly found in the EVs charging equipment in Japan, although it is also used in Europe and USA (see Figure 7f).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Type 2 also includes a Combined Charging System connector, essentially an adapted Mennekes able to supply up to 400 A at 1000 V, implying a charging power up to 400 kWh.

“Although, at first, it was not designed for fast charging, Type 2 also includes another connector, called Combined Charging System (CCS) (see Figure 7d), being essentially an adapted Mennekes adapted to supply up to 400 A to 1000 V, which would imply a charging power up to 400 kWh [81,82].”

• cites [81] Mennekes (2010). Industrial Plugs and Receptacles, Mennekes. Available online: http://www.mennekes.com/pdf/intl/MENNEKES%202010%20Short%20Form%20Export%20Catalog.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [82] Electroenchufe (2010). Mennekes.de—Electro Enchufe Sac, Electroenchufe. Technical Report.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IEC-62196 Mode 3 is a fast charging mode providing an intensity between 32 and 250 A and requires an EV Supply Equipment that communicates with the vehicle, monitors charging, incorporates protection systems, and stops energy flow when the connection is not detected.

“It provides an intensity between 32 and 250 A. This charging mode requires the use of an EV Supply Equipment (EVSE), a specific power supply for charging electric vehicles.This device (i.e., the EVSE) provides communication with the vehicles, monitors the charging process, incorporates protection systems, and stops the energy flow when the connection to the vehicle is not detected.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Tesla vehicle users have 400 kWh of free charging, enough for driving about 1600 km, a strategy that seeks to encourage users to purchase Tesla vehicles.

“Additionally, the users of these vehicles have 400 kWh of free charging, which is enough for driving about 1600 km, a strategy that seeks to encourage users to purchase Tesla vehicles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prime task of BMSs is to manage power delivery trying to reduce battery stress due to charges and discharges.

“The prime task of BMSs is to manage the power delivery trying to reduce the battery stress due to charges and discharges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Zhang et al. simulate how to extend driving ranges by predicting terrain changes and preceding vehicle movement.

“Particularly, the authors simulate how to extend driving ranges, by predicting both terrain changes and preceding vehicle's movement.”

• cites [89] Zhang, 2017, Predictive Energy Management Strategy for Fully Electric Vehicles Based on Preceding Vehicle Movement, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

High temperature is the most common problem for EV batteries and power electronics present in EVs.

“However, high temperature is the most common problem for EV batteries and power electronics present in EVs.”

May combine two claims.

A distinguishing feature of the GB/T 20234 standard used in China is that, while SAE-J1772 and IEC-62196 use the same communication protocol between vehicle and charger, the Chinese standard operates with a different one, causing incompatibility of these charging systems.

“Concerning the GB/T 20234 standard that is used in China, a distinguishing feature against the SAE-J1772 and IEC-62196, is that, while the latter ones use the same communication protocol between the vehicle and the charger, the Chinese standard operates with a different one, which causes the incompatibility of these charging systems [86].”

• cites [86] International Energy Agency (2021, February 02). Technical Guidelines on Charging Facilities for Electric Vehicles, Available online: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content444/ChargingFacilitiesElectricVehicles.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Combined Charging System enables AC slow charge or DC fast charge and is similar to the AC version but with two additional pins to charge in DC.

“This connector, the so-called Combined Charging System (CCS), enables AC slow charge or fast charge to DC, and its appearance is very similar to the AC version, but with two additional pins to charge in DC (see Figure 7b).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The EV could benefit from graphene technology, reaching higher ranges, which could help its adoption by drivers and users.

“The EV could also benefit from this type of technology, reaching higher ranges, something that could help its adoption by drivers and users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

There currently exist three types of standard connectors for fast charges: CCS included in J1772, CHAdeMO added in IEC-62196, and GB/T.

“there currently exist three types of standard connectors to conduct fast charges: (i) the CCS included in the J1772, (ii) the CHAdeMO added in the IEC-62196, and (iii) the GB/T.”

May combine two claims.

Current high associated costs and the lack of a unique and universal standard make wireless charges an unfeasible alternative to traditional wired charging in the short term.

“current high associated costs, and the lack of a unique and universal standard make wireless charges an unfeasible alternative to traditional wired charging process in the short term.”

May combine two claims.

The continuous power density increase of electric motors requires higher power to be delivered by electronics, which results in higher heat dissipation.

“The continuous power density increase of electric motors requires higher power to be delivered by electronics, which results in a higher heat dissipation.”

May combine two claims.

Recycling provides a good opportunity to reduce life cycle costs, enabling recovery of high-value materials.

“Recycling provides a good opportunity to reduce the life cycle costs, enabling the recovery of high-value materials [140].”

• cites [140] Pistoia, 2001, Recycling of electric vehicle batteries, Used Battery Collection and Recycling sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Lithium iron phosphate batteries are starting to be tested in EVs but are still in an early stage of research and development.

“However, although this type of battery is starting to be tested in EVs [94], it still can be found in an early stage of research and development.”

• cites [94] Millner, A. (2010, January 27–29). Modeling lithium ion battery degradation in electric vehicles. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Innovative Technologies for an Efficient and Reliable Electricity Supply (CITRES), Waltham, MA, USA. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Nonneman et al. presented a comparison between different cooling strategies under similar conditions.

“To address this issue, Nonneman et al. [92] presented a comparison between different cooling strategies under similar conditions.”

• cites [92] Nonneman, J., T’Jollyn, I., Clarie, N., Weckx, S., Sergeant, P., and De Paepe, M. (June, January 29). Model-Based Comparison of Thermo-Hydraulic Performance of Various Cooling Methods for Power Electronics of Electric Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2018 17th IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems (ITherm), San Diego, CA, USA. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

MIT researchers have reduced the weight of lithium iron phosphate batteries and developed a prototype cell that can be completely charged in 10-20 s, compared with 6 min for standard battery cells.

“MIT researchers have managed to reduce its weight and they have developed a prototype-cell that can be completely charged in just 10-20 s, a reduced time if we compare it with the necessary 6 min.for standard battery cells [95].”

• cites [95] Alternative Energy (2021, February 21). New Battery Technology Charges in Seconds. Available online: http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/new-battery-technology-charges-in-seconds/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mouawad et al. proposed cost effective and high integration, as well as performance power electronic systems.

“In the same line, other authors, such as Mouawad et al. [93], proposed cost effective and high integration, as well as performance power electronic systems.”

• cites [93] Mouawad, B., Espina, J., Li, J., Empringham, L., and Johnson, C.M. (2018, January 7–19). Novel Silicon Carbide Integrated Power Module for EV application. Proceedings of the 2018 1st Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power Devices and Applications in Asia (WiPDA Asia), Xi’an, China. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Lithium iron phosphate batteries present an energy density of approximately 220 Wh/L, durability of 2000 to 10,000 cycles, and tolerate high temperatures.

“This kind of battery presents an energy density of approximately 220 Wh/L, a great durability (they are able to withstand between 2000 and 10,000 cycles) and tolerate high temperatures.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Batteries are a critical factor for EVs, as they determine the vehicle's autonomy.

“batteries are a critical factor, as these will determine the vehicle's autonomy.”

May combine two claims.

Some government incentives can have adverse effects, e.g., exemption of toll charges has significantly reduced toll revenue.

“some of these incentives can have adverse effects (e.g., the exemption of toll charges has significantly reduced toll revenue [141]).”

• cites [141] Aasness, 2015, The increase of electric vehicle usage in Norway—Incentives and adverse effects, Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The development in autonomy, power, technology, and comfort is helping buyers consider EVs as an actual possibility when purchasing a new vehicle.

“the development that is undergoing during the last years, in terms of autonomy, power, technology, and comfort, is helping buyers to consider EVs as an actual possibility when purchasing a new vehicle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Graphene is a material formed by pure carbon, with high thermal conductivity and extremely light (a one square meter blade weighs 0.77 mg).

“Graphene is a material that is formed by pure carbon, which has a high thermal conductivity and it is extremely light (a one square meter blade weighs 0.77 mg) [109].”

• cites [109] Vargas-Ceballos, O.A. (2013). Estudio de Materiales Basados en Grafeno para su uso Como Ánodos en Baterías de Li-Ión. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Córdoba].Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Graphene is expected to be a solution that enables storage of higher amounts of power and charge in shorter periods of time.

“such as the graphene, which is expected to be a solution that enables the storage of higher amounts of power, and charge in shorter periods of time.”

May combine two claims.

Once batteries' lifetime has ended, they can be an environmental hazard, and correct recycling is essential for the successful implementation of this transportation technology.

“once the batteries' lifetime has ended, they can be an environmental hazard, and correct recycling is essential for the successful implementation of this transportation technology.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Once batteries' lifetime has ended, they can be an environmental hazard.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The development of batteries with higher capacities will favor the use of the fastest and most powerful charging modes, as well as better wireless charging technologies.

“The development of batteries with higher capacities will also favor the use of the fastest and most powerful charging modes, as well as better wireless charging technologies.”

May combine two claims.

Although EVs do not emit climate-damaging greenhouse gases and NO2, the required electricity could be produced by fossil-fuel power plants, limiting the supposed climate benefits.

“Although EVs do not emit climate-damaging greenhouse gases and NO 2 , the required electricity could be produced by fossil-fuel power plants, and thus limit the supposed climate benefits.”

May combine two claims.

Different connector standards can cause difficulties for users when charging, require adapters, increase the cost of electric vehicles, and sometimes introduce safety risks.

“Although these markets are quite different and separate, this fact is not desirable and it can cause difficulties for users when charging their vehicles; purchasing adapters can be required, thereby increasing the cost of Electric Vehicles, and sometimes introducing safety risks.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The American and Japanese markets use connectors proposed by the J1772 standard, while European vehicles use connectors suggested by IEC-62196.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The EV will play a highly important role in future Smart Cities, and having different charging strategies that adapt to users' needs will be of special relevance.

“The EV will play a highly important role in the future Smart Cities, and having different charging strategies that can adapt to the users' needs will be of special relevance.”

May combine two claims.

Magnesium-ion batteries are expected to have a 6.2 kWh/L energy density, which would imply 8.5 times more than the best lithium batteries, currently able to apply up to 0.735 kWh/L.

“It is expected that this type of battery can have a 6.2 kWh/L energy density [96], which would imply 8.5 times more than the best lithium batteries, which are currently able to apply up to 0.735 kWh/L.”

• cites [96] Fichtner, 2017, Magnesium–sulfur battery: Its beginning and recent progress, MRS Commun. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Organizations such as the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy, Toyota, and NASA are investigating magnesium-ion batteries.

“Organizations, such as the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), Toyota, or NASA, are investigating this type of battery [97,98].”

• cites [97] Seeker (2021, February 21). Supercharged! Battery Power for the Future. Available online: https://www.seeker.com/supercharged-battery-power-for-the-future-1766230400.html.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [98] NASA (2021, February 21). A Multiscale Approach to Magnesium Intercalation Batteries: Safer, Lighter, and Longer-Lasting, Available online: https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/nstrf_2017/Magnesium_Intercalation_Batteries.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Lithium-metal batteries have a high Coulombic efficiency above 99.1%, withstand more than 6000 charging cycles, and after 1000 cycles maintain an average Coulombic efficiency of 98.4%.

“Lithium-metal batteries have a high Coulombic efficiency (above 99.1%), withstanding more than 6000 charging cycles, and, after 1000 cycles they maintain an average Coulombic efficiency of 98.4% [101].”

• cites [101] Qian, 2015, High rate and stable cycling of lithium metal anode, Nat. Commun. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Aluminum-air batteries reach very large energy densities, attaining 6.2 kWh/L, which allows high autonomies up to 1600 km.

“Their main advantage is that this type of battery reaches very large energy densities, attaining 6.2 kWh/L [103], which allows obtaining a high autonomies (up to 1600 km) [104].”

• cites [103] Gelman, 2014, Aluminum–air battery based on an ionic liquid electrolyte, J. Mater. Chem. A sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [104] Extremetech (2021, February 21). Aluminium-Air Battery Can Power Electric Vehicles for 1000 Miles, Will Come to Production Cars in 2017. Available online: https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/151801-aluminium-air-battery-can-power-electric-vehicles-for-1000-miles-will-come-to-production-cars-in-2017.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mouawad et al. present a Silicon Carbide Integrated Power Module that integrates multiple functional elements and is able to increase power density, improve electrical performance, and reduce costs without compromising thermal performance or reliability.

“In particular, they present a Silicon Carbide Integrated Power Module that integrates multiple functional elements (i.e., semiconductor devices, DC-link capacitors, output filters, current sensing, and gate driver), which is able to increase power density, improve electrical performance, and reduce the costs without compromising thermal performance or reliability.”

• cites [93] Mouawad, B., Espina, J., Li, J., Empringham, L., and Johnson, C.M. (2018, January 7–19). Novel Silicon Carbide Integrated Power Module for EV application. Proceedings of the 2018 1st Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power Devices and Applications in Asia (WiPDA Asia), Xi’an, China. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Magnesium-ion batteries change the use of lithium over magnesium, succeeding in storing more than double the charge and increasing stability.

“These batteries change the use of lithium over magnesium, succeeding in storing more than double the charge and increasing its stability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

EV production can require more than twice as much energy to produce an electric car as compared to a conventional one, especially due to batteries production.

“some studies consider that it can require more than twice as much energy to produce an electric car as compared to a conventional one [128,129], especially due to the batteries production.”

• cites [128] Finkbeiner, M. (2011). Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Electric Vehicle Concepts. Towards Life Cycle Sustainability Management, Springer. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [129] Romare, M., and Dahllöf, L. (2017). The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Study with Focus on Current Technology and Batteries for Light-Duty Vehicles, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Available online: https://www.ivl.se/download/18.5922281715bdaebede9559/1496046218976/C243+The+life+cycle+energy+consumption+and+CO2+emissions+from+lithium+ion+batteries+.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The use of vehicular communications and Artificial Intelligence can catalyze the actual implementation of new more ecological and sustainable transport.

“we believe that the use of vehicular communications and Artificial Intelligence (AI) can catalyze the actual implementation of the new more ecological and sustainable transport.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of renewable energies for manufacturing and charging electric vehicles is a key aspect.

“Hence, the use of renewable energies for manufacturing and charging electric vehicles is a key aspect.”

May combine two claims.

The data on reduced public transport passengers can be directly related to the impressive growth of EV sales in Norway, since EV economic advantages and higher comfort can result in a reduction of public transport usage.

“we consider that these data can be directly related to impressive growth of EV sales in this country, since EV economic advantages and higher comfort can result in a reduction of public transport usage.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: High sales of EVs, mainly in Norway, is the result of governments' economic incentives.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The creation of a unique connector that can be globally used could benefit the deployment of electric vehicles.

“The creation of a unique connector that can be globally used is another aspect that could benefit the deployment of electric vehicles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Future BMS should consider the new scenarios introduced by new batteries and Smart Cities requirements.

“Therefore, future BMS should consider the new scenarios that were introduced by new batteries and Smart Cities requirements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sodium is the sixth most abundant element on the planet.

“A great advantage of this type of batteries is that sodium is the sixth more abundant element in our planet [108].”

• cites [108] Phys.org (2021, February 21). Sodium-Air Battery Offers Rechargeable Advantages Compared to Li-Air Batteries. Available online: https://phys.org/news/2013-01-sodium-air-battery-rechargeable-advantages-li-air.html.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The price of aluminum-air batteries is decreasing, currently positioning at 300 e/kWh, and they are recyclable.

“The price of this kind of battery is decreasing, currently positioning in 300 e/kWh [105], and their advantage is that they are recyclable.”

• cites [105] Energy Storage Inter-Platform Group (2021, February 21). State of the Art of Energy Storage Regulations and Technology. Available online: http://www.futured.es/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/GIA-Maqueta_eng.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The successful and effective deployment of wireless EV charging requires the development of cost effective, high performance, and high integration power electronic systems.

“The successful and effective deployment of wireless electric vehicles charging requires the development of cost effective, high performance, and high integration power electronic systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the price of EVs is slightly higher, purchasing aids and reduced tax schemes are helping to reduce the existing gap.

“Although the price is slightly higher (in some models, the difference with respect to the combustion engine version engine is notable), the purchasing aids and the reduced tax schemes are also helping to reduce the existing gap.”