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Plasma Concentrations of Trimethylamine-N-oxide Are Directly Associated with Dairy Food Consumption and Low-Grade Inflammation in a German Adult Population
Open accessAbstract
Background Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) is a metabolite of carnitine, choline, and phosphatidylcholine, which is inversely associated with survival of cardiovascular disease (CVD) patients.Objective We examined the associations of diet with plasma concentrations of TMAO, choline, and betaine and the associations of TMAO with plasma concentrations of various cytokines.Methods Plasma TMAO, choline, and betaine concentrations were measured using LC-high resolution mass spectrometry in 271 participants, ≥18 y old, of the Second Bavarian Food Consumption Survey, conducted in 2002 and 2003. Food consumption was assessed using at least two 24-h dietary recalls. Cytokines were measured in plasma with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Geometric mean concentrations of TMAO, choline, and betaine by categories of meat, dairy food, egg, and fish consumption were computed, adjusted for sex, age, and BMI. Multivariable-adjusted geometric mean concentrations of cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), soluble TNF receptors (sTNF-R) p55, sTNF-R p75, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and C-reactive protein (CRP)] were computed by quartiles of TMAO concentration using general linear models.Results Meat, egg, or fish consumption was not associated with TMAO, choline, or betaine concentrations (all P-trend ≥ 0.05). With increases in milk and other dairy food consumption, the plasma TMAO concentration increased [geometric mean bottom quartile of milk consumption: 2.08 μM (95% CI: 1.69, 2.57 μM); compared with top quartile: 3.13 μM (95% CI: 2.56, 3.84 μM); P-trend = 0.008]. Participants in the top TMAO quartile had higher plasma concentrations of TNF-α, sTNF-R p55, and sTNF-R p75 than participants in the bottom quartile (percentage difference ranging between 14.4% and 17.3%; all P-trend < 0.05), but there were no differences in plasma concentrations of CRP and IL-6 (all P-trend ≥ 0.05).Conclusions Results of this study conducted among healthy adults from the general population do not indicate a strong effect of diet on plasma concentrations of TMAO, choline, or betaine, with the exception of a positive association between dairy food consumption and plasma TMAO concentrations. Also, plasma TMAO concentrations were positively associated with inflammation. Whether habitual diet is strongly linked to the plasma TMAO concentration, a potential marker of CVD risk, needs to be determined in further studies.
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“nowadays there is convincing evidence suggesting an association between TMAO and inflammation [8,9,10,11,12]”
From Implication of Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) in Disease: Potential Biomarker or New Therapeutic Target (2018) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“The study performed by Rohrmann et al. [10] described a link between low grade inflammation and plasma TMAO levels. When the concentration of plasma TMAO was augmented there was an overexpression of TNF-α, IL-6 and C-reactive protein.”
From Implication of Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) in Disease: Potential Biomarker or New Therapeutic Target (2018) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“In a small study in healthy Bavarian subjects, dietary intake of fish, meat, or eggs was not associated with plasma TMAO concentrations, but dairy intake was positively associated with plasma TMAO concentrations (94).”
From Trimethylamine N -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [94]
In the citing paper
“In a study involving 271 participants, consumption of meat, egg, or fish was not associated with TMAO, choline, or betaine concentrations [24].”
From Trimethylamine N-oxide: the good, the bad and the unknown. (2016) · cites this paper as [24]
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“A study conducted by Rohrmann et al. (2016) [8] unveiled a link between low-grade inflammation and increased plasma TMAO concentrations.”
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“The blood level of TMAO is influenced by a number of factors, such as diets, intestinal flora, drug regulation, and liver FMO activity [7].”
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“On the contrary, plasma TMAO level has been positively associated with low-grade inflammation in a German population [52].”
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“…cardiovascular field and have found that TMAO can mediate vascular endothelial inflammation and immune damage, but the effects and mechanisms by which TMAO induces renal injury remain unclear (Rohrmann, Linseisen, Allenspach, von Eckardstein, & Müller, 2016; Wang, Qiu, Lian, Yang, & Zhou, 2021).”
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“TMAO levels in human body are mainly determined by dietary intake of cholinergic foods [28], inclusive of red meat [27,37], fish in white meat [38], dairy products [39], and most recently reported whole-grains cereals [40].”
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“However, Rohrmann et al. (2016) observed no obvious effect of dietary intake of meat, egg or fish on plasma TMAO levels, but a positive association between dairy food consumption and plasma TMAO concentrations in 271 participants.”
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“A growing body of evidence has shown that human subjects with high blood TMAO are in a state of systemic inflammation [50,51].”
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“However, two studies conducted in adults showed the associations of dairy intake with plasma TMAO concentration [33,55].”
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“Some studies indicate that there is no noteworthy association between the consumption of red, white, or processed meat and plasma TMAO concentrations, 49,58 yet a study has also demonstrated that individuals with plasma TMAO levels higher than 4.60 µmol/L consume more red meat in their diets.”
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The gut-bone axis: impact of diet on gut microbiome and osteoporosis
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“It was suggested that choline-enriched food consumption was linked to chronic elevated plasma TMAO levels and low-grade inflammation among healthy adults.(42) Our recent study has revealed the positive link between TMAO and risk of DR.”
BackgroundBrandão, C., Krempf, M., de Carvalho, F. G., Aguesse, A., Junqueira‐Franco, M. V. M., Batitucci, G., de Freitas, E. C., Noronha, N. Y., Rodrigues, G. D. S., Junqueira, G. P., et al. (2024) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo14080398 · Cited by 8
“A landmark study [12,13] reported that higher plasma concentrations of TMAO were associated with a 50% increase in the adverse event of coronary morbidity.”
BackgroundMirzababaei, A., Mahmoodi, M. S., Abaj, F., Barkhidarian, B., Dehghani, A., Khalili, P., Roumi, Z., & Mirzaei, K. (2024) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2024.1346074 · Cited by 7
Is There any Possible Association Between Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) and Cancer? A Review Study
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“can induce chronic inflammation, which can be carcinogenic [31] and may explain carcinogenicity of TMAO.”
BackgroundSalivary trimethylamine N-oxide: a novel non-invasive marker for periodontal inflammation
Serdar, C. C., Güney, Z., Balcı, N., ALTINGÖZ, S. M., Serdar, M. A., & Kurgan, Ş. (2025) · Clinical Oral Investigations · doi:10.1007/s00784-025-06295-4 · Cited by 6
“It activates nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), leading to the elevated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1β [5] through IL-1-related pro-inflammatory pathways [2, 3].”
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“…one egg per day, while the four studies that did not find an association either did not define ‘high’ egg consumption [47,48] or defined their highest intake as less than one egg per day [51,54]; therefore, regularly consuming one egg per day might be associated with higher fasting plasma TMAO.”
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Trimethylamine N-oxide variation in humans: the product of a diet–microbiota interaction?
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Integrating TMAO into the pathogenesis of obesity and type 2 diabetes: a mini review
Stoian, D. L., Pescari, D., Bena, A., Paul, C., & Mihuta, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Clinical Diabetes and Healthcare · doi:10.3389/fcdhc.2026.1765794 · Cited by 3
Plasma cardiovascular stress biomarkers response to marathon running
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“…in the pathogenesis of systemic inflammation, atherosclerosis, and vascular endothelial dysfunction [67], Clinical evidence indicates that elevated circulating TMAO concentrations trigger upregulated expression of proinflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-6, and C-reactive protein [68].”
Rowland, S. N., Heaney, L. M., Boit, M. D., & Bailey, S. J. (2023) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo13070876 · Cited by 2
“This contrasts findings from some previous human studies where men presented with higher TMAO concentration [11–13], but aligns with others reporting no inter-sex differences [14,15].”
ResultCruz, B. O. D., Coutinho‐Wolino, K. S., Cardozo, L., Pereira, A. D., Mesquita, C. T., Stenvinkel, P., Bergman, P., Mafra, D., & Stockler‐Pinto, M. B. (2024) · International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences · doi:10.36660/ijcs.20230113 · Cited by 3
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“Fish and seafood are rich in TMAO and TMA and they can be directly absorbed without being transformed by gut microbiota.(14) As previous studies linked TMAO to atherosclerosis and CVD, these findings might be contra intuitive as fish is generally accepted to be cardioprotective.”
BackgroundGut microbiota: role of biofilms in human health
Jha, D., & Kumar, R. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-19252-4.00009-2 · Cited by 1
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“8,9 TMAO has been shown to elevate proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and reactive oxygen species in endothelial cells, while simultaneously downregulating nitric oxide production.”
Tomov, D. G., Levterova, B. A., Mihaylova, V., Troev, D. M., Tomova, Z., Uzunova, Y. I., & Orbetzova, M. M. (2025) · Folia Medica · doi:10.3897/folmed.67.e152209 · Cited by 1
“[17]”
Intestinal Permeability Biomarkers for Predicting Cardiometabolic Risk in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Dal, N., Bilici, S., Akin, S., & Türker, P. F. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18010167 · Cited by 1
“Studies have shown an increase in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α , IL-6, CRP) when serum TMAO level is elevated [35,36].”
Mohammadzadeh, M., Söğüt, M. Ü., Fazlzadeh, A., & Çelik, M. N. (2026) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-026-00795-9 · Cited by 1
“After multivariable adjustment, TMAO levels were positively associated with mortality, whereas CMPF levels were inversely associated with mortality risk [ 74 ].”
The beneficial role of healthy microbiome in metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular health
Arora, S., Bhambri, N., Puri, S., Anamika, A., Dasgupta, N., Khater, S., & Das, G. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822238-6.00003-0 · Cited by 1
Contractile effect of trimethylamine and trimethylamine‐n‐oxide on isolated human umbilical arteries
Ongun, M. C., Örgül, G., Çelık, Ç., & Barışkaner, H. (2023) · Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research · doi:10.1111/jog.15656 · Cited by 2
“TMAO levels were shown to increase in those who consume more red meat, and decrease in individuals who use antibiotics.(5,6) Plasma TMAO levels are relatively low in healthy people, on the other hand, TMA and TMAO levels were reported to elevate in CVD, kidney injury, type 2 diabetes mellitus, or colorectal cancer com…”
BackgroundPathogenesis of diabetic atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
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Sugano, M. (2017) · Oleoscience · doi:10.5650/oleoscience.17.217 · Cited by 1
Link between gut microbiome and cardiometabolic diseases
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Limit the uptake of milk by young people: A method to prevent the occurrence of heart failure
Wang, J.-Z., Du, W.-T., & Liu, G.-J. (2017) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.01.147
Brandão, C. F. C. E. C. M. (2019) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.17.2019.tde-10042019-092726
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Suplementacja karnityną - dwie strony medalu
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Avaliação da influência do vinho tinto sobre a microbiota intestinal e N-óxido de trimetilamina
Haas, E. A. (2021) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.5.2021.tde-06122021-125446
Metabolic Abnormalities in Hypertensive patients and their Risk Factors
Ashraf, M. I., Rana, S., Makhtar, M. S., Afzal, A., Suhail, B., Mukhtar, S., Fatima, J., Shahzad, A., & Shaukat, A. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences · doi:10.53350/pjmhs211571494
Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) as a Biomarker
Gabbianelli, R., & Bordoni, L. (2022) · Biomarkers in disease · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81304-8_2-1
Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) as a Biomarker
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THE ROLE OF THE INTESTINAL MICROBIOTA METABOLITE TMAO IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF VARIOUS DISEASES
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Dietary Meat, Plasma Metabolites, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: A Multi-Cohort Study in SwedenPreprint
Arage, G., Dekkers, K. F., Rašo, L. M., Hammar, U., Ericson, U., Larsson, S. C., Engel, H., Baldanzi, G., Pertiwi, K., Sayols-Baixeras, S., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.10.21.24315788
Trimethylamine N-oxide, a gut microbiota-dependent metabolite in Chronic Hepatitis B
Hataysal, E. P., Körez, M. K., Kasar, N. H., Aslan, T., Şengül, F., Çağlar, H. G., Kural, A., & Vatansev, H. (2024) · Genel Tıp Dergisi · doi:10.54005/geneltip.1539275
Role of microbiota-gut-brain axis in brain infections and possible interventions
Sharma, P., Sharma, B., Vishwakarma, K., Setty, A. R. R., Sandeep, P., Dhiman, N., & Arora, S. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-21680-0.00012-2
Chai, Y., Li, N., Zhai, D., Chen, S., Li, Y., Tan, Y., Tang, X., Yang, Y., Pu, X., & Li, L. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000042780
“…of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) and the concentration of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides produced by the decomposition of GM are related to CHD. [14] On the other hand, GM can also increase the risk of cardiovascular disease through inflammation.”
Mirzababaei, A., Mahmoodi, M. S., Abaj, F., Ebrahimi, S., Samadi, M., Khalili, P., Mohamadi, A., Zarrinvafa, Z., & Mirzaei, K. (2025) · Nutrire · doi:10.1186/s41110-025-00390-y
Additional file 2 of Phenylacetyl glutamine: a novel biomarker for stroke recurrence warning
Ma, L., Fu, G., Liu, R., Zhou, F., Dong, S., Zhou, Y., Lou, J., & Wang, X. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26569006
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Xiong, X., Zhou, J., Fu, Q., Xu, X., Wei, S., Yang, S., & Chen, B. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20353468
Additional file 1 of Phenylacetyl glutamine: a novel biomarker for stroke recurrence warning
Ma, L., Fu, G., Liu, R., Zhou, F., Dong, S., Zhou, Y., Lou, J., & Wang, X. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26569003
Liang, X., Cheng, P. Y., Zhao, S., Sun, Y., Zhang, D., Wen, J., Ma, F., Guan, Q., Li, X., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Horticulturae · doi:10.3390/horticulturae12010101
“Unlike many synthetic pesticides or growth regulators, TMAO is a naturally occurring molecule present in common food sources like marine fish [28].”
InfluentialIshihara, Y., Ihara, E., Ohkubo, H., Ohira, M., Tomita, N., Takahashi, K., Oyamada, S., Kurihashi, T., Iwasaki, T., Usuda, H., et al. (2026) · Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology · doi:10.14309/ctg.0000000000001046
“Although dietary e ff ects may be possible, apart from excessive milk intake, no nutritional factors have been linked to elevated serum TMAO levels (37).”
Red Meat in Human Evolution, Health, and Disease: From A Blessing to A Curse?
Jaco, J., Banda, K., Varki, A. P., & Gagneux, P. (2026) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/741185 · Cited by 1
Immunomodulatory Properties of Choline and its Dietary Forms throughout the Lifespan
Rusnak, T., Azarcoya‐Barrera, J., Tibães, J. R. B., Mandour, B. A., & Richard, C. (2026) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2026.101699
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“…are metabolized by the gut microbiota to trimethylamine (TMA) and subsequently converted by hepatic flavin monooxygenase (FMOs) to TMAO (Konstan - tinova et al. 2008; Brown and Hazen 2014; Rohrmann et al. 2016; Macpherson et al. 2020; He et al. 2021; Tacconi et al. 2023; Zheng and He 2022).”
Altahrawi, A. Y., Sofi, F., Kanjwal, Z., & Shah, Z. A. (2026) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells15201845
“However, a few other studies failed to show any association with the diet [8].”
Nutraceutical potential of caprine milk products: Emerging cardiometabolic health perspectives
Hans, S., Sioriki, E., Demuru, M., Zabetakis, I., & Lordan, R. (2026) · Food and Humanity · doi:10.1016/j.foohum.2026.101587
Metadata
- Authors
- Rohrmann, S., Linseisen, J., Allenspach, M., von Eckardstein, A., & Müller, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Helmholtz Munich (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Rohrmann, Sabine
- Venue
- The Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-02
- Volume
- 146
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 283-289
- ISSN
- 0022-3166 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2231380317
- Cited by
- 197
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 11.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- Site cant be reached (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OPUS (Augsburg University) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Environment
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Keywords
- trimethylamine N-oxide, milk consumption, choline, betaine, low-grade inflammation, cytokines, TNF-α, soluble TNF receptors, interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, dietary intake, cardiovascular risk, plasma biomarkers, German adults, dietary surveys, dietary assessment, 24-hour dietary recall
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Animals, Betaine, C-Reactive Protein, Choline, Dairy Products, Diet, Diet Surveys, Feeding Behavior, Female, Germany, Humans, Inflammation, Male, Methylamines, Middle Aged, Milk, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Interleukin-6, Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I
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