Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines

Elite polarization and democratic backsliding in Tunisia: tracing agency-driven mechanisms

Escartin, A. R. (2023) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2023.2284873 · Cited by 12

Digital Transformation in the Public Sector Entities

Harmanpreet, Selvakumar, P., Chandra, S., Kalshetti, P., Satyanarayana, P., Mohit, M., & Manjunath, T. C. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-9251-5.ch011 · Cited by 14

Process-Tracing as a Tool to Analyse Discretion

Reykers, Y., & Beach, D. (2017) · Palgrave studies in European Union politics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55137-1_11 · Cited by 14

The politics and policies of citizenship in Italy and Spain, an ideational account

Pasetti, F. (2019) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2019.1611422 · Cited by 13

Disarmed principals: institutional resilience and the non-enforcement of delegation

Weiß, M., & Heinkelmann‐Wild, T. (2020) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773920000181 · Cited by 12

Exploring enablers and obstacles to policy‐oriented learning in Swedish marine national park planning

Morf, A., Sandström, A., & Söderström, S. (2022) · Environmental Policy and Governance · doi:10.1002/eet.1992 · Cited by 14

EU regulation between uniformity, differentiation, and experimentalism: Electricity and banking compared

Zeitlin, J., & Rangoni, B. (2022) · European Union Politics · doi:10.1177/14651165221126387 · Cited by 12

Concrete Counterfactual Tests for Process Tracing: Defending an Interventionist Potential Outcomes Framework

Runhardt, R. W. (2022) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/00491241221134523 · Cited by 18

Using process tracing to evaluate unique events: The case of EXPO Milano 2015

Busetti, S., & Dente, B. (2017) · Evaluation · doi:10.1177/1356389017716738 · Cited by 13

Beyond the visible policy agenda: problem definitions disappearing from the agenda as nondecisions

Shpaizman, I. (2018) · Journal of Public Policy · doi:10.1017/s0143814x18000260 · Cited by 13

Addressing the Implementation Crisis: Securing Reparation and Righting Wrongs

Murray, R. (2020) · Journal of Human Rights Practice · doi:10.1093/jhuman/huaa005 · Cited by 12

Expertise, politics and public opinion at the crossroads of the European Commission’s decision-making: The case of Glyphosate.

Bazzan, G., & Migliorati, M. (2020) · International Review of Public Policy · doi:10.4000/irpp.849 · Cited by 12

Zooming Into the Ecosystem: Agency and Politics Around Open Data Platforms in Lyon and Berlin

Slobodova, O., & Becker, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Sustainable Cities · doi:10.3389/frsc.2020.00020 · Cited by 12

Explaining Sub‐Federal Variation in Trade Agreement Negotiations: The Case of CETA

Broschek, J., & Goff, P. M. (2021) · JCMS Journal of Common Market Studies · doi:10.1111/jcms.13287 · Cited by 12

Fuzzy-set Case Studies

Mikkelsen, K. S. (2015) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124115578032 · Cited by 13

A Causal Mechanism of Policy Innovation: The Reform of Colombia’s Oil-Rents Management System

Noguera, B. A. P., & Fontaine, G. (2018) · Revista de Estudios Sociales · doi:10.7440/res63.2018.01 · Cited by 12

The European Border and Coast Guard Agency Frontex beyond Borders - the Effect of the Agency's External DimensionPreprint

Meißner, V. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3085529 · Cited by 12

Tempolimit, Bußgelder und Verkehrswende: Parteipolitik und Blockademacht im Bundesrat

Souris, A., Stecker, C., & Jungjohann, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-38832-4_3 · Cited by 11

The European Pillar of Social Rights: How strategic agency shaped the European Union 's flagship social initiative

Dura, S. (2024) · Social Policy and Administration · doi:10.1111/spol.13028 · Cited by 11

Aligning Interviewing with Process Tracing

Ocantos, E. A. G., & Juan Masullo, J. (2024) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/00491241241258229 · Cited by 18

Working with ideas: Collective bricolage, political tests and the emergence of policy paradigms

Carstensen, M. B., & Röper, N. (2024) · Governance · doi:10.1111/gove.12882 · Cited by 11

Enforcement Process Tracing: Forbearance and Dilution in Urban Colombia and Turkey

Bozçağa, T., & Holland, A. C. (2018) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-018-9274-1 · Cited by 11

Limits to evidential pluralism: multi-method large-N qualitative analysis and the primacy of mechanistic studies

Runhardt, R. W. (2022) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-022-03650-w · Cited by 11

Increasing toleration for the intolerant? “Adapted militancy” and German responses to Alternative für Deutschland

Laumond, B. (2023) · Comparative European Politics · doi:10.1057/s41295-023-00336-6 · Cited by 11

Advocacy Coalitions and Paths to Policy Change for Promoting Energy Efficiency in European Industry

von Malmborg, F., & Strachan, P. A. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16093785 · Cited by 11

The causal nexus between trust, institutions and cooperation in international relations

Elhardt, C. (2015) · Journal of Trust Research · doi:10.1080/21515581.2015.1007459 · Cited by 11

Identifying Relevant Cases of Conversion and Drift Using the Comparative Agendas Project

Shpaizman, I. (2016) · Policy Studies Journal · doi:10.1111/psj.12150 · Cited by 10

Crisis, cambio en la UE y estrategias sindicales: el impacto de la condicionalidad en el repertorio estratégico de los sindicatos españoles durante la crisis de la eurozona

Gago, A. (2016) · Revista Española de Ciencia Política · doi:10.21308/recp.42.02 · Cited by 11

Unconstrained Capital? Multinational companies, structural power, and collective goods provision in dual VET

Unterweger, D. F. (2020) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwaa035 · Cited by 12

“Someone has to be the First”: Tracing Uruguay’s Marijuana Legalisation Through Counterfactuals

von Hoffmann, J. (2020) · Journal of Politics in Latin America · doi:10.1177/1866802x20937415 · Cited by 11

Populism and Securitization: The Corrosion of Elite Security Authority in a US–Mexico Border State

Slaven, M. (2021) · Journal of Global Security Studies · doi:10.1093/jogss/ogab005 · Cited by 11

Consensus and Isolation in the EU Council of Ministers

Smeets, S. (2015) · Journal of European Integration · doi:10.1080/07036337.2015.1055739 · Cited by 11

Developing a Niche Readiness Level Model to Assess Socio-Economic Maturity: The Case of DC Technologies in the Transition to Flexible Electrical NetworksPreprint

Schöpper, Y., Digmayer, C., Bartusch, R., Ebrahim, O., Hermens, S. E., Nejabat, R., Steireif, N., Wendorff, J., Jakobs, E.-M., Lohrberg, F., et al. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4683145 · Cited by 10

Explanation in Sociology and Coleman’s Diagram

Raub, W. (2026) · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1007/s11577-026-01047-y · Cited by 10

Middle Powers and Soft-Power Rivalry: Egyptian–Israeli Competition in Africa

Siniver, A., & Tsourapas, G. (2023) · Foreign Policy Analysis · doi:10.1093/fpa/orac041 · Cited by 12

It Ain’t Over ‘Til It’s Over: Interest-Group Influence in Policy Implementation

Truijens, D., & Hanegraaff, M. (2023) · Political Studies Review · doi:10.1177/14789299231162015 · Cited by 14

Imagining the flood: rationalities of governance in sinking cities

Steig, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2024.1362526 · Cited by 10

The political economy of energy transitions in Africa: Coalitions, politics and power in Tanzania

Pedersen, R. H., & Poncian, J. (2024) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103712 · Cited by 10

The “Silo Problem” in Mixed Methods Research

Maxwell, J. A. (2018) · International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches · doi:10.29034/ijmra.v10n1a20 · Cited by 10

On the Methodology of Studying Differentiated (Dis)integration: Or How the Potential Outcome Framework Can Contribute to Evaluating the Costs and Benefits of Opting In or Out

Burk, M., & Leuffen, D. (2019) · JCMS Journal of Common Market Studies · doi:10.1111/jcms.12958 · Cited by 10

Conceptualizing Agency and Agents in Earth System Governance

Scobie, M., Benney, T. M., Brown, C., & Widerberg, O. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108688277.002 · Cited by 10

Whistleblowing as a Career Crisis: Recovering from Retaliatory Job Loss through a Process of Bifurcation

Hennequin, É. (2021) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/09500170211021721 · Cited by 14

From Kyoto to Glasgow: is Japan a climate leader?

Gilson, J. A. (2021) · The Pacific Review · doi:10.1080/09512748.2021.2008475 · Cited by 10

Why do political parties promote participatory governance? The Brazilian Workers’ Party case

Bezerra, C. D. P. (2022) · Critical Policy Studies · doi:10.1080/19460171.2022.2027256 · Cited by 10

‘How to make the most of your time in the Chair’: EU presidencies and the management of Council debates

Smeets, S., & Vennix, J. A. M. (2014) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501763.2014.914055 · Cited by 10

Process tracing, abstraction, and varieties of cognitive interest

Mayntz, R. (2016) · New Political Economy · doi:10.1080/13563467.2016.1201805 · Cited by 10

An examination of evaluation users’ preferences for program- and actor-oriented theories of change

Ofek, Y. (2017) · Evaluation · doi:10.1177/1356389017699544 · Cited by 10

Quality assurance and the shift towards private governance in higher education: Europeanisation through the back door?

Hartmann, E. (2017) · Globalisation Societies and Education · doi:10.1080/14767724.2017.1330138 · Cited by 10

Immunizing Inefficient Field Frames for Mitigating Social Problems: The Institutional Work Behind the Technocratic Antidoping System

Meier, H. E., & Reinold, M. (2018) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244018780954 · Cited by 10

Opportunity, Presence and Entrepreneurship: Why the EU Acts Externally on Higher Education*

Gerards, C., Schunz, S., & Damro, C. (2021) · JCMS Journal of Common Market Studies · doi:10.1111/jcms.13154 · Cited by 10

Korea’s Early COVID-19 Response: Findings and Implications

Ryu, S.-K., & Chung, S.-G. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18168316 · Cited by 10

Process Tracing

Siewert, M. Β. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-17189-6_9 · Cited by 10

Beyond instrumentalisation: NGO monitoring coalitions in Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia

Wunsch, N. (2015) · East European Politics · doi:10.1080/21599165.2015.1085859 · Cited by 10

Transaqua: power, political change and the transnational politics of a water megaproject

Adeniran, A., & Daniell, K. A. (2020) · International Journal of Water Resources Development · doi:10.1080/07900627.2020.1747408 · Cited by 10

Early-career scientists in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A moderate or radical path towards a deliberative future?

Gustafsson, K. M., & Berg, M. (2020) · Environmental Sociology · doi:10.1080/23251042.2020.1750094 · Cited by 10

Vom Lockdown in die Staatsbeteiligung? Wirtschaftspolitik in der Covid-19 Pandemie

Sack, D., Roland, A., & Fuchs, S. (2021) · dms – der moderne staat – Zeitschrift für Public Policy Recht und Management · doi:10.3224/dms.v14i2.15 · Cited by 10

Transnational political economic structures: explaining transnational environmental movements against dams in the lower Mekong region

Young, S., & Ear, S. (2021) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436597.2021.1984224 · Cited by 9

Scaling up policy entrepreneurship strategies from the local to the national level: the unlikely rise of basic income from agenda universe to decision agenda

Hong, I., Bae, J., & Choi, Y. J. (2024) · Journal of Asian Public Policy · doi:10.1080/17516234.2024.2354636 · Cited by 9

Unmasking the Authoritarian Mob Boss: A Critical Analysis of Donald Trump’s Political Leadership

Baptist, N. K., & Clark, K. A. (2024) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci13080397 · Cited by 9

Evaluating Parliamentary Advocacy for Nutrition in Tanzania

Lintelo, D. T., & Pittore, K. H. (2020) · European Journal of Development Research · doi:10.1057/s41287-020-00291-y · Cited by 9

Getting Practical With Causal Mechanisms: The application of Process‐Tracing Under Real‐World Evaluation Constraints

Raimondo, E. (2020) · New Directions for Evaluation · doi:10.1002/ev.20430 · Cited by 9

Detecting Looming Vetoes: Getting the European Parliament’s Consent in Trade Agreements

Peffenköver, M. S., & Adriaensen, J. (2021) · Politics and Governance · doi:10.17645/pag.v9i3.4014 · Cited by 9

Explaining transgender policy change: Policy momentum in Canada and Australia

McMahon, N. (2023) · Governance · doi:10.1111/gove.12781 · Cited by 9

Mobilizing Private Investment in Climate Solutions: De-risking Strategies of Multilateral Development Banks

Choi, E. S., & Laxton, V. (2023) · doi:10.46830/wriwp.22.00091 · Cited by 9

Policy drift and its reversal: The case of prescription drug coverage in the United States

Shpaizman, I. (2017) · Public Administration · doi:10.1111/padm.12315 · Cited by 10

Mapping ‘the ANT multiple’: A comparative, critical and reflexive analysis

Kanger, L. (2017) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/jtsb.12141 · Cited by 12

EULEX and the fight against organised crime in Kosovo: what’s the record?

Proksik, J. J. (2017) · Trends in Organized Crime · doi:10.1007/s12117-017-9321-8 · Cited by 9

Unexpected compliance? The implementation of the Defence and Security Procurement Directive

Strikwerda, J. (2018) · Journal of European Integration · doi:10.1080/07036337.2018.1482288 · Cited by 9

The Legal Construction of Power in Deliberative Governance

de Castro, H. A. (2019) · Law & Social Inquiry · doi:10.1017/lsi.2019.74 · Cited by 9

The federalization of trade politics in Switzerland, Germany and Austria

Broschek, J. (2021) · Regional & Federal Studies · doi:10.1080/13597566.2021.1932829 · Cited by 9

Die Revision der Entsenderichtlinie: Wie die Hürden marktkorrigierender EU-Politik überwunden werden konnten

Seikel, D. (2022) · Politische Vierteljahresschrift · doi:10.1007/s11615-022-00402-w · Cited by 9

La construction provinciale comme mécanisme : le cas de l’immigration au Manitoba

Paquet, M. (2015) · Politique et Sociétés · doi:10.7202/1027942ar · Cited by 9

Student behavioural disengagement, peer encouragement and the school curriculum: a mechanism approach

Reichenberg, O. (2017) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1347491 · Cited by 9

From secessionism to regionalism: The changing nature of territorial politics in Western Australia

Lecours, A., & Béland, D. (2018) · Regional & Federal Studies · doi:10.1080/13597566.2018.1443918 · Cited by 9

Cryptocurrency and Capital ControlsPreprint

Carlson, J. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3046954 · Cited by 9

The missing link for effective informal settlement upgrading: Appropriation shaping the outcome of new infrastructure

Wainaina, G. K., & Truffer, B. (2024) · Urban Studies · doi:10.1177/00420980241236077 · Cited by 8

From Effects of Governance to Causes of Epistemic Change

Gläser, J. (2024) · Minerva · doi:10.1007/s11024-024-09526-2 · Cited by 8

The political economy of cybersecurity: Governments, firms and opportunity structures for business power

Weiß, M., & Krieger, N. (2025) · Contemporary Security Policy · doi:10.1080/13523260.2025.2474867 · Cited by 8

The politics of minimum income reform in Spain: explaining unexpected and consensual path departure

Soler-Buades, L. (2025) · Journal of Social Policy · doi:10.1017/s0047279425000078 · Cited by 8

Organizational capacity and policy integration: government communications strategy in managing COVID-19 in Indonesia

Karlina, N., Miftah, A. Z., Widianingsih, I., & Gill, S. S. (2025) · Cogent Social Sciences · doi:10.1080/23311886.2025.2563038 · Cited by 8

The elephant in the room: the European Council’s dominance in core state powers during times of crisis

Capati, A., Hegedus, D., & Zgaga, T. (2025) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2025.2577136 · Cited by 8

From the Eurozone Debt Crisis to the Alternative for Germany

Conrad, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2020.00004 · Cited by 8

The difficulty of policy transfer in physical education: the failure of UNESCO’s Quality Physical Education in South Africa

Uhlenbrock, C., & Meier, H. E. (2021) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2021.1958176 · Cited by 8

The Differentiation Paradox of European Integration: Why Going it Alone Produces Suboptimal Results1

Biermann, F. (2022) · JCMS Journal of Common Market Studies · doi:10.1111/jcms.13373 · Cited by 8

Agenda Setting on FAIR Guidelines in the European Union and the Role of Expert Committees

Stocker, M., Stokmans, M. J. W., & van Reisen, M. (2022) · Data Intelligence · doi:10.1162/dint_a_00168 · Cited by 8

Identifying causal mechanisms of unexpected policy change: Accumulated punctuation in the field of lobbying transparency in Germany

Schiffers, M., & Plümer, S. (2024) · European Policy Analysis · doi:10.1002/epa2.1205 · Cited by 8

When Rentier Patronage Breaks Down: The Politics of Citizen Outsiders on Gulf Oil States’ Labour Markets

Hertog, S. (2025) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-024-09455-x · Cited by 8

Rechnungshöfe als Veto-Spieler? Öffentlich-Private Partnerschaften im Bundesfernstraßenverkehr

Sack, D. (2018) · dms – der moderne staat – Zeitschrift für Public Policy Recht und Management · doi:10.3224/dms.v11i1.09 · Cited by 8

Puzzling Publics: The role of reflexive learning in universal pre-kindergarten (UPK) policy formulation in Canada and the US

Millar, H., Davidson, A. M., & White, L. A. (2019) · Public Policy and Administration · doi:10.1177/0952076719889100 · Cited by 10

Fuelling the fire: Al-Shabaab, counter-terrorism and radicalisation in Kenya

Papale, S. (2021) · Critical Studies on Terrorism · doi:10.1080/17539153.2021.2016091 · Cited by 8

From toleration to recognition: explaining change and stability in party responses to the Danish People’s Party

Nicolaisen, M. H. (2023) · Comparative European Politics · doi:10.1057/s41295-023-00338-4 · Cited by 8

Gendered advocacy coalitions and the Istanbul Convention: a comparative analysis of Bulgaria and Poland

Gwiazda, A., & Minkova, L. G. (2023) · International Feminist Journal of Politics · doi:10.1080/14616742.2023.2214566 · Cited by 8

Exploring issues of rigour and utility in Fairtrade impact assessment

Nelson, V. N. V., & Martin, A. (2014) · Food Chain · doi:10.3362/2046-1887.2014.003 · Cited by 8

Methods for analyzing decision-making: a framework approach

Nyhlén, J., & Lidén, G. (2013) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-013-9905-6 · Cited by 10

Sector‐Specific Development and Policy Vulnerability in the Philippines

Ricks, J. I. (2017) · Development and Change · doi:10.1111/dech.12300 · Cited by 8

A congruence analysis of the inequality–conflict nexus: Evidence from 16 cases

Bartusevičius, H. (2017) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894217710801 · Cited by 8

From Economic Gains to Social Losses

Fastenrath, F., Orban, A., & Trampusch, C. (2018) · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1007/s11577-018-0540-z · Cited by 8

Co-chairing Asia-Pacific defence diplomacy: the case ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting Plus

Pitakdumrongkit, K. K., & Klaisringoen, N. (2019) · Australian Journal Of International Affairs · doi:10.1080/10357718.2019.1568387 · Cited by 9

Fallstudien und Process Tracing in der Vergleichenden Politikwissenschaft

Muño, W. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-02338-6_6 · Cited by 8

Europeanization as the Reterritorialization of the State: Towards Conceptual Clarification

Havlík, V. (2020) · JCMS Journal of Common Market Studies · doi:10.1111/jcms.13031 · Cited by 8

Phased Narrowing: A New Process Tracing Method for Decision Making

Levin, I. P., & Jasper, J. D. (1995) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1084 · Cited by 42

A Comparison of Two Process Tracing Methods for Choice TasksPreprint

Lohse, G. L., & Johnson, E. J. (1996) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 5

Process Tracing

Clarke, C. J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197519806.013.15 · Cited by 3

A Comparison of Two Process Tracing Methods for Choice Tasks

Lohse, G. L., & Johnson, E. J. (1996) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1996.0087 · Cited by 271

Process tracing in case studies

Griffith, J. E. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203093801-19 · Cited by 4