The Effects of Problem-Oriented Policing on Crime and Disorder
Open accessAbstract
This Campbell systematic review assesses the effects of problem-oriented policing on crime and disorder based on the existing research. The review summarises findings from 10 studies from eight American cities and six residential areas in the UK. The participants were probationers, parolees and residents of the eight American cities and six residential areas in the UK. Problem oriented policing has a statistically significant impact on reducing crime and disorder, but the effect size was small, and there was a lack of diversity and responses in the included studies. The results were similar for both the randomized and quasi-randomized studies. The evidence base is small and there are shortcomings in the quality of the evidence. Abstract: Background: Problem-oriented Policing (POP) was first introduced by Herman Goldstein in 1979. The approach was one of a series of responses to a crisis in effectiveness and legitimacy in policing that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. Goldstein argued that police were not being effective in preventing and controlling crime because they had become too focused on the “means” of policing and had neglected the “goals” of preventing and controlling crime and other community problems. Goldstein argued that the unit of analysis in policing must become the “problem” rather than calls or crime incidents as was the case during that period. POP has had tremendous impact on American policing, and is now one of the most widely implemented policing strategies in the US. Objectives: To synthesize the extant problem-oriented policing evaluation literature and assess the effects of problem-oriented policing on crime and disorder Selection criteria: Eligible studies had to meet three criteria: (1) the SARA model was used for a problem-oriented policing intervention; (2) a comparison group was included; (3) at least one crime or disorder outcome was reported with sufficient data to generate an effect size. The unit of analysis could be people or places. Search strategy: Several strategies were used to perform an exhaustive search for literature fitting the eligibility criteria. First, a keyword search was performed on an array of online abstract databases. Second, we reviewed the bibliographies of past reviews of problem-oriented policing. Third, we performed forward searches for works that have cited seminal problem-oriented policing studies. Fourth, we performed hand searches of leading journals in the field. Fifth, we searched the publications of several research and professional agencies. Sixth, after finishing the above searches we e-mailed the list of studies meeting our eligibility criteria to leading policing scholars knowledgeable in the area of problem-oriented policing to ensure we had not missed any relevant studies. Data collection and analysis: For our ten eligible studies, we provide both a narrative review of effectiveness and a meta-analysis. For the meta-analysis, we coded all primary outcomes of the eligible studies and we report the mean effect size (for studies with more than one primary outcome, we averaged effects to create a mean), the largest effect, and the smallest effect. Because of the heterogeneity of our studies, we used a random effects model. Main results: Based on our meta-analysis, overall problem-oriented policing has a modest but statistically significant impact on reducing crime and disorder. Our results are consistent when examining both experimental and quasi-experimental studies. Conclusions: We conclude that problem-oriented policing is effective in reducing crime and disorder, although the effect is fairly modest. We urge caution in interpreting these results because of the small number of methodologically rigorous studies on POP and the diversity of problems and responses used in our eligible studies.
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BackgroundHinkle, J. C., Weisburd, D. L., Telep, C. W., & Petersen, K. (2024) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paae053 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegration of Social Work Values and Principles in Police Work
Rhodes, D. J., Geyton, T. A., & Ost, J. (2023) · Journal of Forensic Social Work · doi:10.15763/issn.1936-9298.2023.7.2.43-58 · Cited by 7
Telep, C. W., & Weisburd, D. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-014-9206-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In February 2007, NIJ provided $85,000 to fund the completion of three reviews, two of which were on policing topics: problem-oriented policing (Weisburd et al. 2008), second responder programs for domestic violence (Davis et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCommunity policing in England, Wales, and European Union: Past, present and future
Erkan, P., & Balcioğlu (2016) · doi:10.1501/avraras_0000000232 · Cited by 7
Ward, K. J., Yoo, J., Liu, W., Sheridan-Johnson, J., & Taylor, B. G. (2024) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10986111241257879 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…2010) and suggests that such approaches hold more promise over the traditional model of policing (Braga et al., 2001, 2012, 2019; Hinkle et al., 2020; Scott & Clarke, 2020; Sherman & Weisburd, 1995; Skogan & Frydl, 2004; Weisburd et al., 2008; Weisburd & Magmundar, 2017; Weisburd & Telep, 2014).”
PROTOCOL: Broken Windows Policing to Reduce Crime: A Systematic Review
Braga, A. A., & Welsh, B. C. (2016) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.158 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Bibliographies of past completed Campbell systematic reviews of police crime control efforts will be searched (Mazerolle et al., 2007; Weisburd et al., 2008; Bowers et al., 2010; Braga, 2007).”
BackgroundGill, C. E., Weisburd, D. L., Telep, C. W., Vitter, Z., & Bennett, T. H. (2017) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.174 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“However, the problem-solving element may be associated with crime prevention to the extent that solutions to problems incorporate situational crime prevention and opportunity-blocking strategies (see Scheider et al., 2009; Weisburd et al., 2008, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEnhancing SARA: a new approach in an increasingly complex world
Burton, S., & McGregor, M. (2018) · Crime Science · doi:10.1186/s40163-018-0078-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“It is essentially a rational method to systematically identify and analyse problems, develop specific responses to individual problems and subsequently assess whether the response has been successful (Weisburd et al. 2008).”
MethodCurrie, E. P. (2010) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00604.x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Homicide Hot Spots in Chicago: Examining Spatiotemporal Patterns Longitudinally Across Police Beats
Gullion, C. L., Comer, B. P., & Randa, R. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221125386 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Research assessing hot spot policing strategies demonstrates problem-oriented policing, foot patrol, and place-based policing strategies have a greater effect on crime over traditional policing strategies (Novak et al., 2016; Ratcliffe et al., 2011; Weisburd et al., 2008).”
BackgroundKoziarski, J., & Kalyal, H. (2020) · Police Practice & Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2020.1786690 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“For instance, we now have strong bases of evidence on several effective policing practices, such as hot spots policing (Braga, Turchan et al., 2019), problem-oriented policing (Goldstein, 1979; Weisburd et al., 2008, 2010), and focused deterrence (Braga, Weisburd et al., 2019).”
BackgroundRosenbaum, D. P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108278423.015 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Weisburd, D. L., Hinkle, J. C., & Telep, C. W. (2019) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1005 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Professor Weisburd has been an evaluator of problem‐oriented policing programs, including the Jersey City Drug Market Analysis Experiment and was lead author on the earlier Campbell review of POP (Weisburd et al., 2008; 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationNorthern Territory Safe Streets Audit
Morgan, A., Williams, E. P., Renshaw, L., & Funk, J. (2014) · Australian Institute of Criminology eBooks · doi:10.52922/sp09739 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Big Data and Innovation in the Delivery of Public Services: The Case of Predictive Policing in Kent
Asquer, A. (2014) · Advances in electronic government, digital divide, and regional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-7266-6.ch002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Smart Policing Initiative: 15 Years of Evidence-Based Innovation in Policing Practice
Sun, C. M., Coldren, J. R., & Blondin, A. P. (2025) · Justice Evaluation Journal · doi:10.1080/24751979.2025.2474121 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ekblom, P. (2014) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-67284-4_22 · Cited by 2
Welsh, B. C., Braga, A. A., & Hollis-Peel, M. E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-012-9153-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sheridan-Johnson, J., Liu, W., Taylor, B. G., & Park, D. (2025) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2025.2556667 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“While not without critique that the inherent subjectiveness of policing limits the impact of ‘evidence-based’ policing (Thacher, 2019), research has shown that POP strategies can significantly reduce crime (Weisburd et al., 2008).”
Taylor, B. G., Liu, W., Zalsha, S., Sheridan-Johnson, J., Sabol, G., & Lacy, C. R. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-024-09629-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Squads working treatment hot spots were instructed to visit their assigned hot spots at least once per day and implement at least one POP for Youth specific project per hot spot based on the SARA model (scanning, analysis, response, assessment) (Weisburd et al., 2008) over the course of the project.”
Mechanism of criminal activity aimed at unlawful seizure of business entities’ assets
Tiulieniev, S. (2024) · Bulletin of Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs · doi:10.32631/v.2024.2.17 · Cited by 1
Braga, A. A., & Weisburd, D. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-014-9205-8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationThe growth of randomized experiments in policing: the vital few and the salience of mentoring
Braga, A. A., Welsh, B. C., Papachristos, A. V., Schnell, C., & Grossman, L. S. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-013-9183-2 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Sherman, L. W. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-013-9184-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Paredes, E. (2026) · International Journal of Sustainability and Advanced Integrated Research · doi:10.65339/ijsair.v2.i3.780
Vigne, N. L., Giménez-Santana, A., Tissandier, G., & Santos, A. (2026) · Crime Science · doi:10.1186/s40163-026-00285-x
“Of note is evidence on the effectiveness of both problem-oriented policing and hot spots policing, or targeted patrols (Bowers et al., 2011; Braga et al., 2019; Weisburd et al., 2008).”
Effectiveness of Community Police Assistance Centers: Its Impact on Crime Prevention
Azuelo, L., & Elvas, M. J. (2025) · Psychology and Education A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.70838/pemj.481005
Deter, detect, disrupt. An analysis of Nottinghamshire Police’s knife crime team
Andrews, T. (2024) · The Police Journal Theory Practice and Principles · doi:10.1177/0032258x241286359
“The increased community presence through visible policing action, in response to speci fi c public intelligence and concerns, also leads to increased legitimacy through POP (Gill et al., 2014; Goldstein, 1990), rather than police-determined activities.”
InfluentialTiulieniev, S. (2024) · Theory and Practice of Forensic Science and Criminalistics · doi:10.32353/khrife.1.2024.03
Anthony V. Bouza and the Founding of Evidence-Based Policing
Sherman, L. W. (2024) · Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing · doi:10.1007/s41887-023-00092-3
“The experiments found that the problem-solving approach produced a small reduction in calls for police to high-demand residential addresses, but not to commercial addresses (Weisburd, Telep, Hinkle, J. C. and Eck, 2008).”
Gelişmiş Batı Ülkelerinde Suç Oranlarının Düşmesinde Güvenlik Yaklaşımının Etkisi
Kızmaz, Z. (2022) · Journal of Humanity and Society (insan & toplum) · doi:10.12658/m651
Assessing the Impact of Public Policy on Homicide Rates in Brazil: The Case of PRONASCI Program
de Castro, T. E., Justus, M., & Kassouf, A. (2021) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/07340168211039006
“In addition to Operation Ceasefire, several interventions based on problem-oriented policing have been implemented and have proven effective in reducing crime (Weisburd et al., 2008), including in Brazil.”
BackgroundHerman Goldstein (1931 – 2020): a tribute
Mazerolle, L. (2020) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2020.1752213
Opportunity Theories and Super Mario Bros.
Sytsma, V. A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8_7
- Authors
- Weisburd, D., Telep, C. W., Hinkle, J. C., & Eck, J. E.
- Affiliations
- United States Department of Justice (US)
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Corresponding author
- Weisburd, David
- Venue
- Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2008-03-11
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 1891-1803 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2186243923
- Cited by
- 100
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 21.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Campbell Systematic Reviews (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Universitätsbibliothek Tübingen
- United States. Department of Justice. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
- Funders
- National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, USA (Award No. 2007-IJ-CX-0045)
- Nordic Campbell Centre, Danish National Institute of Social Research, Denmark
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- problem-oriented policing, crime reduction, disorder reduction, SARA model, police effectiveness, probationers, parolees, community policing, crime prevention, effect size, American cities, police-community relations
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