Cited by 389Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchMindfulness and Compassion InterventionsPsychotherapy Techniques and Applications

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Yoga as an Adjunctive Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

van der Kolk, Bessel A., Stone, Laura, West, Jennifer, Rhodes, Alison, Emerson, David, Suvak, Michael, Spinazzola, Joseph·2014·The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry

DOI 10.4088/jcp.13m08561

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: More than a third of the approximately 10 million women with histories of interpersonal violence in the United States develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Currently available treatments for this population have a high rate of incomplete response, in part because problems in affect and impulse regulation are major obstacles to resolving PTSD. This study explored the efficacy of yoga to increase affect tolerance and to decrease PTSD symptomatology. METHOD: Sixty-four women with chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD were randomly assigned to either trauma-informed yoga or supportive women's health education, each as a weekly 1-hour class for 10 weeks. Assessments were conducted at pretreatment, midtreatment, and posttreatment and included measures of DSM-IV PTSD, affect regulation, and depression. The study ran from 2008 through 2011. RESULTS: The primary outcome measure was the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). At the end of the study, 16 of 31 participants (52%) in the yoga group no longer met criteria for PTSD compared to 6 of 29 (21%) in the control group (n = 60, χ²₁ = 6.17, P = .013). Both groups exhibited significant decreases on the CAPS, with the decrease falling in the large effect size range for the yoga group (d = 1.07) and the medium to large effect size decrease for the control group (d = 0.66). Both the yoga (b = -9.21, t = -2.34, P = .02, d = -0.37) and control (b = -22.12, t = -3.39, P = .001, d = -0.54) groups exhibited significant decreases from pretreatment to the midtreatment assessment. However, a significant group × quadratic trend interaction (d = -0.34) showed that the pattern of change in Davidson Trauma Scale significantly differed across groups. The yoga group exhibited a significant medium effect size linear (d = -0.52) trend. In contrast, the control group exhibited only a significant medium effect size quadratic trend (d = 0.46) but did not exhibit a significant linear trend (d = -0.29). Thus, both groups exhibited significant decreases in PTSD symptoms during the first half of treatment, but these improvements were maintained in the yoga group, while the control group relapsed after its initial improvement. DISCUSSION: Yoga significantly reduced PTSD symptomatology, with effect sizes comparable to well-researched psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacologic approaches. Yoga may improve the functioning of traumatized individuals by helping them to tolerate physical and sensory experiences associated with fear and helplessness and to increase emotional awareness and affect tolerance. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00839813.

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Kassis, A., & Papps, F. A. (2020) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101238 · Cited by 13
Nature versus urban hiking for Veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomised trial conducted in the Pacific Northwest USA
Littman, A. J., Bratman, G. N., Lehavot, K., Engel, C. C., Fortney, J. C., Peterson, A. C., Jones, A., Klassen, C., Brandon, J., & Frumkin, H. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051885 · Cited by 19
Association of Complementary and Alternative Therapies With Mental Health Outcomes in Pregnant Women Living in a Postdisaster Recovery Environment
Barcelona, V., Harville, E. W., Savage, J. S., & Giarratano, G. (2015) · Journal of Holistic Nursing · doi:10.1177/0898010115609250 · Cited by 13
“A small randomized clinical trial (van der Kolk et al., 2014) found that yoga significantly reduced PTSD symptoms in a sample of nonpregnant women with a history of intimate partner violence.”
Background
Self‐Administered Mind‐Body Practices for Reducing Health Disparities: An Interprofessional Opinion and Call to Action
Kinser, P. A., Robins, J. L. W., & Masho, S. W. (2016) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2016/2156969 · Cited by 13
“…to coordinate or educate patients on selfadministered MBP. Interprofessional teams are positioned to connect a multitude of providers and promote a collaborative practice that hinges on each profession recognizing and utilizing each other’s expertise to provide an effective patientcentered care.”
Perceived mechanisms of change in therapeutic yoga targeting psychological distress
Harvey, R. A., Andriopoulou, P., & Grogan, S. (2019) · Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies · doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2019.06.014 · Cited by 13
A grounded theory of weight lifting as a healing strategy for trauma
Nowakowski-Sims, E., Rooney, M., Vigue, D., & Woods, S. (2023) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2023.100521 · Cited by 12
Management of Treatment-Resistant Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Starke, J., & Stein, D. J. (2017) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-017-0130-0 · Cited by 12
An Exploratory Study of the Acceptability and Feasibility of Yoga Among Women in Substance Use Disorder Recovery
Gorvine, M. M., Haynes, T. F., Marshall, S. A., Clark, C. J., Lovelady, N. N., & Zaller, N. D. (2020) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2020.0351 · Cited by 11
“An example intervention, Trauma Center Trauma-Informed Yoga (TC-TIY), had significant effects on reducing symptoms of PTSD in intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors.(12) The TC-TIY also integrated elements of a trauma psychotherapeutic group.”
Method
Survivor‐led relational psychotherapy and embodied trauma: A qualitative inquiry
Forde, C., & Duvvury, N. (2020) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12355 · Cited by 11
Psychological Flexibility and Set-Shifting Among Veterans Participating in a Yoga Program: A Pilot Study
Avery, T. J., Blasey, C. M., Rosen, C. S., & Bayley, P. J. (2018) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usy045 · Cited by 11
Validation francophone de l’Inventaire des capacités du soi altérées au sein d’adultes de la communauté et d’un échantillon clinique.
Bigras, N., & Godbout, N. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000177 · Cited by 18
“La version originale en anglais est couramment employée dans les processus d’évaluation psychothérapeutique ainsi qu’à des fins de recherche (Allen, 2011; Courtois, 2004; MacIntosh, 2019; Van der Kolk et al., 2014).”
Background
Reduce stress and the risk of burnout by using yoga techniques. Pilot study
Żok, A., Matecka, M., Bienkowski, A., & Cieśla, M. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1370399 · Cited by 18
Understanding trauma-informed physical activity in practice: A qualitative exploration
Makawa, A., Baldwin, E., Witcomb, G. L., Jarvis, H., & Kinnafick, F. (2025) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102942 · Cited by 10
Trauma-informed interventions versus control for cancer-risk behaviours among adults: rationale and design for a randomized trial
Currie, C. L., Copeland, J. L., Voss, M. L., Swanepoel, L.-M., Ambeskovic, M., Patel, N. B., & Higa, E. K. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7641-0 · Cited by 10
A Pilot Study of a Trauma‐Informed Yoga and Mindfulness Intervention With Young Women Incarcerated in the Juvenile Justice System
Nicotera, N., & Viggiano, E. (2021) · Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling · doi:10.1002/jaoc.12095 · Cited by 15
Exploring the Use of Hip Hop-Based Music Therapy to Address Trauma in Asylum Seeker and Unaccompanied Minor Migrant Youth
Gulbay, S. (2021) · Voices A World Forum for Music Therapy · doi:10.15845/voices.v21i3.3192 · Cited by 10
Wired for Threat: Clinical Features of Nervous System Dysregulation in 80 Children
Elbers, J. M., Jaradeh, S. S., Yeh, A. M., & Golianu, B. J. (2018) · Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.007 · Cited by 11
Treatment Resistance in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
McFARLANE, A. C. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4358-1_10 · Cited by 12
The Implementation of a Mindfulness-Oriented Retreat Intervention for Rural Women Veterans
Murray-Swank, N. A., Dausch, B. M., & Murray-Swank, A. B. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01234-3 · Cited by 9
A Systematic Review of Quantitative and Qualitative Results of Randomized Controlled Trials Assessing the Effect of Yoga in Adult Women With Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: What Is Known So Far
Ali, M., Oble, M. J. P., Sonia, S. N., George, S., Shahi, S. R., Ali, Z., Abaza, A., Jamil, A., Gutlapalli, S. D., & Khan, S. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.47765 · Cited by 9
“…were made to the yoga technique to prevent the reemerging of trauma; therefore, creating a safe place for individuals and allowing them to choose if they want to proceed with the intervention as they navigate the emerging of any favorable and unfavorable bodily responses [23,25,27,30,31].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Music therapists’ perceptions of creating safety in the context of trauma with children and adolescents: A qualitative study
Lai, H.-I. C., Thompson, G. A., & McFerran, K. S. (2024) · Nordic Journal of Music Therapy · doi:10.1080/08098131.2024.2389552 · Cited by 9
“Polyvagal Theory (Porges, 2011) has profoundly influenced the development of many trauma-recovery approaches that emphasize safety such as Somatic Experiencing (Payne et al., 2015), trauma-informed yoga (van der Kolk et al., 2014), and Sensorimotor Psychotherapy (Fisher & Ogden, 2009).”
Beyond Pharmacology: A Narrative Review of Alternative Therapies for Anxiety Disorders
Antos, Z., Zackiewicz, K., Tomaszek, N., Modzelewski, S., & Waszkiewicz, N. (2024) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases12090216 · Cited by 9
“The authors report that yoga has shown promise in reducing PTSD symptoms, producing effects similar to those observed with established psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacological interventions [47].”
Result
Physical Activity and Exercise as a Tool to Cure Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Sabri, S., Rashid, N., & Mao, Z. (2023) · Mental Illness · doi:10.1155/2023/4294753 · Cited by 12
“These results suggest that yoga may be an e ﬀ ective adjunct to traditional PTSD therapy for patients [134 – 136].”
Background
Enhancing the Seeking Safety group intervention with trauma-sensitive yoga practice: A program evaluation
Murphy, T. M., Dispenza, F., Chang, C. Y., Elston, N. C., Rumsey, A. D., Sinclair, M., & Curtis-Davidson, R. (2019) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2019.03.006 · Cited by 9
A psychomotor diagnostic instrument for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder
van de Kamp, M. M., Emck, C., Cuijpers, P. J., & Beek, P. J. (2018) · Body Movement and Dance in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/17432979.2017.1420692 · Cited by 9
“…reducing PTSD symptoms, stress and anxiety levels and dissociative problems has been shown in studies using measures based on self-report (van der Kolk et al., 2014; Price, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2014) and also in studies using psycho-physiological measures (Kim, Schneider, Bevans, et al.,…”
Influential
A Journey to Embodied Healing: Yoga as a Treatment for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Jindani, F., & Khalsa, G. F. S. (2015) · Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work Social Thought · doi:10.1080/15426432.2015.1082455 · Cited by 12
“Individuals with PTSD often experience numerous barriers to treatment (van der Kolk et al., 2014).”
Background
#MindinBody - feasibility of vigorous exercise (Bikram yoga versus high intensity interval training) to improve persistent pain in women with a history of trauma: a pilot randomized control trial
Flehr, A., Barton, C., Coles, J. Y., Gibson, S. J., Lambert, G. W., Lambert, É., Dhar, A. K., & Dixon, J. B. (2019) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12906-019-2642-1 · Cited by 9
Mindfulness and meditation in the conceptualization and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder
Vujanovic, A. A., Niles, B. L., & Abrams, J. L. (2016) · Mindfulness and Buddhist-Derived Approaches in Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22255-4_11 · Cited by 12
Yoga as a complementary approach to healing for adult victims and survivors of interpersonal violence
Mazzio, A. K., Mendoza, N. S., Brown, M. L., Sinha, D. D., Messing, J. T., Wilson, S., & Walton, L. (2021) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2021.101427 · Cited by 8
A Pilot Study to Adapt a Trauma-Informed, Mindfulness-Based Yoga Intervention for Justice-Involved Youth
Owen‐Smith, A. A., Black, H., Emerson, D. J., Cotner, M. A., Smith, H., Jackson, D., Ford, J. D., DeBar, L., DiClemente, R. J., & Hayat, M. J. (2021) · International Journal of Yoga Therapy · doi:10.17761/2021-d-21-00032 · Cited by 13
Effectiveness of a high-intensive trauma-focused, family-based therapy for youth exposed to family violence: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Fictorie, V., Jonkman, C., Visser, M. M., Vandenbosch, M. M. L. J. Z., Steketee, M., & Schuengel, C. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05981-4 · Cited by 9
“One randomized trial found that trauma-informed yoga reduced PTS symptoms [41].”
Breath-focused mind-body therapy for global mental health: war and other mass disasters
Gerbarg, P. L., & Brown, R. P. (2024) · Academia Mental Health and Well-Being · doi:10.20935/mhealthwellb6198 · Cited by 9
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Kearney, D. J., Martinez, M. E., & Simpson, T. L. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-35868-2.00010-4 · Cited by 9
From Fight or Flight, Freeze or Faint, to “Flow”: Identifying a Concept to Express a Positive Embodied Outcome of Trauma Recovery
Seng, J. S. (2018) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390318778890 · Cited by 9
When I Became a Refugee, This Became My Refuge: A Proposal for Implementing a Two-Generation Intervention Using Yoga and Narrative to Promote Mental Health in Syrian Refugee Caregivers and School Readiness in Their Preschool Children
Goodman, G., & Goodman, V. D. (2019) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2019.1680939 · Cited by 9
“…TSY intervention program (Clark et al., 2014; Emerson, 2015; Emerson, Sharma, Chaudhry, & Turner, 2009; Javnbakht et al., 2009; van der Kolk et al., 2014; West, Liang, & Spinazzola, 2017) on Syrian refugee primary caregiver wellness and parenting outcomes (Cloitre et al., 2009; Muzik…”
Background
Prenatal and Perinatal EMDR Therapy: Early Family Intervention
Cortizo, R. (2020) · Journal of EMDR Practice and Research · doi:10.1891/emdr-d-19-00046 · Cited by 8
“…remain within her window of tolerance by modulating her arousal (Ogden et al., 2006), practicing mindfulness, practicing relaxation exercises (Van der Kolk et al., 2014), role-playing limits setting (Knell & Dasari, 2011), and rehearsing grounding practices (Ogden et al., 2006; Siegel, 2018).”
Background
Yoga as an intervention for older peoples mental health: a literature review
Belam, G. (2020) · Working with Older People · doi:10.1108/wwop-05-2020-0017 · Cited by 8
Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for trauma-exposed patients in an outpatient setting: A clinical chart review study
Davis, A. K., Mangini, P., & Xin, Y. (2021) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2021.00179 · Cited by 10
Pioneering approaches: Navigating mind wandering and self-silencing in dissociated adolescent female sexual trauma survivors - An interpretative phenomenological analysis
Varshney, D. K. S., Agrawal, M., Tripathi, R. K., & Rasaily, S. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100445 · Cited by 7
Mixing Job Training with Nature-Based Therapy Shows Promise for Increasing Labor Market Affiliation among Newly Arrived Refugees: Results from a Danish Case Series Study
Uldall, S. W., Poulsen, D. V., Christensen, S. I., Wilson, L., & Carlsson, J. M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084850 · Cited by 7
“The observed small, but statistically significant, decrease in PTSD-symptomatology and disability measured with the HTQ and WHODAS are in line with some qualitative research on war-veterans showing an effect of nature-therapy on self-assessed improvement in PTSD symptoms, and ability to participate in social activitie…”
BackgroundInfluential
Protocol to implement and evaluate a culturally secure, strength-based, equine-assisted learning program, "Yawardani Jan-ga" (horses helping), to support the social and emotional wellbeing of Australian aboriginal children and young people
Coffin, J., Vaz, S. M. A., Kickett-Tucker, C. S., Milroy, H., Olsson, C. A., Kirby, M., Nelson, L., McPhee, R., & CROSS, D. S. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0312389 · Cited by 8
“…to enhance recovery and build resilience include mind/body, experiential approaches, and expressive therapies, like mindfulness-based self-compassion [38], trauma-focused Cognitive Behaviour Therapy [39], trauma-sensitive yoga [40], and expressive art therapies, including psychodrama [41].”
#MeToo and Yoga: Guidance for Clinicians Referring to Trauma-Informed Yoga
Rousseau, D., Weiss-Lewit, K., & Lilly, M. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2018-0038 · Cited by 7
Assessment of the effectiveness of exercise interventions in the treatment of PTSD: based on a systematic evaluation and meta-analysis
Fang, Y., Zhang, Q., & Lin, Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702199 · Cited by 7
Mind–body intervention for post-traumatic stress disorder in adolescents: a systematic review and network meta-analysis
Bianjiang, Z., Jianchun, Z., Xiaoyu, S., & Yang, J. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-06620-x · Cited by 12
“Although yoga combined with meditation has been reported to contribute to symptom maintenance to some extent, the lack of supporting data prevents definitive conclusions [76].”
Exploring Forest Therapy as an Adjunct to Treatment as Usual within a Community Health Counselling Service
Evans, S., Livingstone, A., Dodds, M., Kotte, D., Geertsema, M., & O’Shea, M. (2022) · Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/19349637.2022.2106608 · Cited by 6

Authors: van der Kolk, B. A., Stone, L., West, J., Rhodes, A., Emerson, D., Suvak, M., & Spinazzola, J.
Affiliations: Suffolk University (US)
ORCID: West, Jennifer
Emerson, David
Suvak, Michael
Venue: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
Publisher: Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc
Published: 2014-06-15
Volume: 75
Issue: 06
Pages: e559-e565
ISSN: 0160-6689 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.4088/jcp.13m08561
OpenAlex: W2163976266
Cited by: 389
References: 57
Citations by year: 2026: 27 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 6
FWCI: 32.25
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1r21at003905-01a2)
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (1R21AT003905)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma-informed yoga, interpersonal violence, women, emotion regulation, affect tolerance, depression, treatment-resistant PTSD, adjunctive therapy, relapse, women's health education, medication adherence
MeSH terms: Adult, Combined Modality Therapy, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Middle Aged, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Psychotherapy, Group, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Yoga

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Yoga as an Adjunctive Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

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