The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 49 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Economic Burden of Depression in the United States: How Did It Change Between 1990 and 2000?
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The economic burden of depression was estimated to be 43.7 billion dollars in 1990. A subsequent study reported a cost burden of 52.9 billion dollars using revised prevalence data and a refined workplace cost estimation approach. The objective of the current report is to provide a 10-year update of these estimates using the same methodological framework. METHOD: Using a human capital approach, we developed prevalence-based estimates of 3 major cost categories: (1) direct costs, (2) mortality costs arising from depression-related suicides, and (3) costs associated with depression in the workplace. Cost-of-illness estimates from 1990 were updated to reflect the experience in 2000 using current epidemiologic data and publicly available population, wage, and cost information. RESULTS: Whereas the treatment rate of depression increased by over 50%, its economic burden rose by only 7%, going from 77.4 billion dollars in 1990 (inflation-adjusted dollars) to 83.1 billion dollars in 2000. Of the 2000 total, 26.1 billion dollars (31%) were direct medical costs, 5.4 billion dollars (7%) were suicide-related mortality costs, and 51.5 billion dollars (62%) were workplace costs. CONCLUSION: The economic burden of depression remained relatively stable between 1990 and 2000, despite a dramatic increase in the proportion of depression sufferers who received treatment. Future research will incorporate additional costs associated with depression sufferers, including the excess costs of their coexisting psychiatric and medical conditions and attention to the role of painful conditions as a driver of these costs.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These studies typically find that MDD is associated with among the highest number of days out of role at the societal level of any physical or mental disorder due to its combination of comparatively high prevalence and comparatively strong individual-level association.60–62 In the WMH surveys, for example, 62,971 respondents across 24 countries were assessed for a wide range of common physical and”
From The Costs of Depression (2012) · cites this paper as [63]
In the citing paper
“A meta-review 202 reported an almost twenty-fold risk of suicide for persons with depression with a standardized mortality ratio (SMR) of 19·7%.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [202]
In the citing paper
“Importantly, it has been suggested that workplace impairment may contribute to more than 60 % of the MDD-related economic burden [47].”
From Cognitive remission: a novel objective for the treatment of major depression? (2016) · cites this paper as [47]
Citations
Cites
Kessler, R. C. (1994) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010008002 · Cited by 12,370
Self-citationKessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R., Rush, A. J., Walters, E. E., & Wang, P. S. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.289.23.3095 · Cited by 7,988
Self-citationCost of Lost Productive Work Time Among US Workers With Depression
Stewart, W. F. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.289.23.3135 · Cited by 1,421
Social consequences of psychiatric disorders, I: Educational attainment
(1995) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.152.7.1026 · Cited by 1,370
Self-citationA Hundred Cases of Suicide: Clinical Aspects
Barraclough, B. M., Bunch, J., Nelson, B., & Sainsbury, P. (1974) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.125.4.355 · Cited by 1,283
Greenberg, P. E., Stiglin, L. E., Finkelstein, S. N., & Berndt, E. R. (1994) · PharmacoResources · doi:10.1007/bf03289581 · Cited by 975
Self-citationMental disorders and comorbidity in suicide
(1993) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.150.6.935 · Cited by 861
National Trends in the Outpatient Treatment of Depression
Olfson, M. (2002) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.287.2.203 · Cited by 847
National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2001 summary.
Cherry, D. K., Burt, C. W., & Woodwell, D. A. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 762
Comorbid depression and anxiety spectrum disorders
Gorman, J. M. (1996) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6394(1996)4:4 · Cited by 629
Past-Year Use of Outpatient Services for Psychiatric Problems in the National Comorbidity Survey
Kessler, R. C., Zhao, S., Katz, S. J., Kouzis, A. C., Frank, R. G., Edlund, M. J., & Leaf, P. J. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.1.115 · Cited by 610
Self-citationCassano, P., & D, M. F. M. (2002) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(02)00304-5 · Cited by 586
Disability and Depression Among High Utilizers of Health Care: A Longitudinal Analysis
Von Korff, M. (1992) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820020011002 · Cited by 523
United States Bureau of the Census
(1998) · Electronic Resources Review · doi:10.1108/err.1998.2.2.10.9 · Cited by 522
The economic burden of depression
Stoudemire, A., Frank, R. W., Hedemark, N., Kamlet, M. S., & Blazer, D. G. (1986) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0163-8343(86)90018-6 · Cited by 480
Kessler, R. C., Ormel, J., Demler, O., & Stang, P. (2003) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000100000.70011.bb · Cited by 331
Self-citationMiniño, A., Arias, E., Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Smith, B. L. (2002) · PubMed · Cited by 299
National hospital discharge survey: annual summary, 1994.
Graves, E. J., & Gillum, B. S. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 292
Back pain in primary care: predictors of high health-care costs
Engel, C. C., Korff, M. V., & Katon, W. J. (1996) · Pain · doi:10.1016/0304-3959(95)00164-6 · Cited by 291
Risk factors for suicide independent of DSM–III–R Axis I disorder
Foster, T., Gillespie, K., McLelland, R., & Patterson, C. C. (1999) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.175.2.175 · Cited by 273
Relationship of Employee-Reported Work Limitations to Work Productivity
Lerner, D., Amick, B. C., Lee, J. C., Rooney, T., Rogers, W. H., Chang, H., & Berndt, E. R. (2003) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000062551.76504.a9 · Cited by 270
The Cost–Utility of Screening for Depression in Primary Care
Valenstein, M., Vijan, S., Zeber, J. E., Boehm, K., & Buttar, A. (2001) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-134-5-200103060-00007 · Cited by 268
The deliberate misdiagnosis of major depression in primary care
ROST, K. M. (1994) · Archives of Family Medicine · doi:10.1001/archfami.3.4.333 · Cited by 260
Rush, A. J. (1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 250
Mental Health, United States, 2002
Manderscheid, R. W., & Henderson, M. J. (2004) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e400052005-001 · Cited by 250
Barbey, J. T., & Roose, S. P. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 247
The economic impact of depression in a workplace
Conti, D. J., & Burton, W. N. (1995) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/0022-4375(95)98077-d · Cited by 202
The economic and social burden of depression.
Sartorius, N. (2001) · PubMed · Cited by 195
The national nursing home survey: 1999 summary
Jones, A. (2002) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e309012005-001 · Cited by 168
The Effects of Primary Care Depression Treatment on Patients' Clinical Status and Employment
Schoenbaum, M., Unützer, J., McCaffrey, D., Duan, N., Sherbourne, C. D., & Wells, K. B. (2002) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.01086 · Cited by 163
The National Nursing Home Survey: 1977 Summary for the United States.
Hing, E., Sekscenski, E. S., & Strahan, G. W. (1980) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-93-1-157_5 · Cited by 148
Evidence-Based Care For Depression In Managed Primary Care Practices
Rubenstein, L. V., Jackson‐Triche, M., Unützer, J., de Miranda, J. V. M., Minnium, K., Pearson, M. L., & Wells, K. B. (1999) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.18.5.89 · Cited by 135
Aligning Incentives in the Treatment of Depression in Primary Care With Evidence-Based Practice
Frank, R. G., Huskamp, H. A., & Pincus, H. A. (2003) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.54.5.682 · Cited by 123
The economic burden of depression with painful symptoms.
Greenberg, P. E., Leong, S. A., Birnbaum, H. G., & Robinson, R. L. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 122
Self-citationMeasuring the Quality of Depression Care in a Large Integrated Health System
Charbonneau, A., Rosen, A. K., Ash, A. S., Owen, R. R., Kader, B., Spiro, A., Hankin, C. S., Herz, L. R., Pugh, M. J., Kazis, L. E., et al. (2003) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000062920.51692.b4 · Cited by 102
Trends in Office-Based Psychiatric Practice
Olfson, M., Marcus, S. C., & Pincus, H. A. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.3.451 · Cited by 95
The Value Of Mental Health Care At The System Level: The Case Of Treating Depression
Frank, R. G., McGuire, T. G., Normand, S. T., & Goldman, H. H. (1999) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.18.5.71 · Cited by 84
Katzelnick, D. J., Kobak, K. A., Greist, J. H., Jefferson, J. W., & Henk, H. J. (1997) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.48.1.59 · Cited by 81
Trends In Mental Health Services Use And Spending, 1987–1996
Zuvekas, S. H. (2001) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.20.2.214 · Cited by 75
Mental Health in the United States
(1962) · Nature · doi:10.1038/195551a0 · Cited by 66
What Does Treatment Of Depression Really Cost?
Croghan, T. W., Obenchain, R. L., & Crown, W. E. (1998) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.17.4.198 · Cited by 49
Care for Depression in a Changing Environment
Wells, K. B., & Sturm, R. (1995) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.14.3.78 · Cited by 45
Reis, S., Hermoni, D., Borkan, J. M., Biderman, A., Tabenkin, C., & Porat, A. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 39
Barriers to Reducing Burden of Affective Disorders
BRUCE, M. L., Wells, K. B., Miranda, J. M., Lewis, L., & Gonzalez, J. J. (2002) · Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1023/a:1020908430728 · Cited by 32
Treating Depression With Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors: A Practical Approach
Sampson, S. M. (2001) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.4065/76.7.739 · Cited by 28
Fatal toxicity associated with antidepressant use in primary care
Mason, J. M., Freemantle, N., & Eccles, M. (2000) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.25405/ncl.34661673 · Cited by 28
Depression: a decade of progress, more to do.
Goff, V. V. (2002) · PubMed · Cited by 15
Sheifer, V. J. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess0554.pub3 · Cited by 13
System Fails Patients With Comorbid Disorders
Rosack, J. (2003) · Psychiatric News · doi:10.1176/pn.38.1.0001 · Cited by 4
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Selective Cortical Undercutting As a Means of Modifying and Studying Frontal Lobe Function in Man
Scoville, W. B. (1949) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/jns.1949.6.1.0065 · Cited by 7,374
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L., Barkley, R., Biederman, J., Conners, C. K., Demler, O., Faraone, S. V., Greenhill, L. L., Howes, M. J., Secnik, K., et al. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.4.716 · Cited by 3,886
Self-citationThe Epidemiology of Depression Across Cultures
Kessler, R. C., & Bromet, E. J. (2013) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114409 · Cited by 2,657
Self-citationLack of Exercise Is a Major Cause of Chronic Diseases
Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. K., & Laye, M. J. (2012) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c110025 · Cited by 2,575
Slavich, G. M., & Irwin, M. R. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035302 · Cited by 2,206
“These features contribute to substantial social and economic burden (Greenberg et al., 2003; Vos et al., 2004).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenberg, P. E., Kessler, R. C., Birnbaum, H. G., Leong, S. A., Lowe, S. W., Berglund, P. A., & Corey-Lisle, P. K.
- Affiliations
- Analysis Group (United States) (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc
- Published
- 2003-12-15
- Volume
- 64
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1465-1475
- ISSN
- 0160-6689 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2011003051
- Cited by
- 1,280
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 102
- FWCI
- 53.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Health Systems, Economic Evaluations, Quality of Life
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- depression, economic burden, direct medical costs, human capital approach, treatment rates
- MeSH terms
- Costs and Cost Analysis, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depressive Disorder, Health Expenditures, Forecasting, Humans, Suicide, United States, Workplace, Cost of Illness
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
