Economic Cost of Schizophrenia in a Nigerian Teaching Hospital
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: This study evaluated the economic cost of schizophrenia in Nigerian patients and identified factors that influence cost. Methods: A total of 100 participants with schizophrenia were assessed using the modified economic cost questionnaire, the mini-international neuropsychiatric interview, the positive and negative syndrome scale, the Liverpool University Neuroleptic side-effect rating scale, and the global assessment of functioning scale. Associations between sociodemographic characteristics, illness-related variables and direct, indirect, and total costs of schizophrenia were assessed. Results: The average annual total, direct, and indirect costs of the treatment were $818.48, $349.59, and $468.89, respectively, per patient. The direct cost constituted 42.7%, while the indirect cost was 57.3% of the total costs of treatment. Hospitalization was the leading contributor to the direct cost, while productivity loss was a major component of the indirect cost. Conclusion: Schizophrenia is an expensive disease in Nigeria, measures to reduce hospitalization could significantly reduce the cost of illness to the patient and their relatives.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In southeast Nigeria, where Imo State is located, 27% of households incur catastrophic health expenditures, and this rate was higher for rural regions and for people with a mental illness.
“In southeast Nigeria (where Imo State is located), 27% of households incur catastrophic health expenditures, and this rate was higher for rural regions and for people with a mental illness (factoring in both direct and indirect costs of the illness) [65–67].”
From Integrating mental health into primary care: evaluation of the Health Action for Psychiatric Problems In Nigeria including Epilepsy and SubstanceS (HAPPINESS) pilot project (2022) · cites this paper as [67]
The Discussion (page not provided) reports substantial direct and indirect costs for patients with schizophrenia in Nigeria, supporting the point that mental illness can impose both kinds of costs. It does not report that 27% of households in southeast Nigeria incur catastrophic health expenditures or that the rate is higher in rural areas or among people with mental illness. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia.
Kay, S. R., Fiszbein, A., & Opler, L. A. (1987) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/13.2.261 · Cited by 21,378 · see citing works
(1996) · Cited by 6,884 · see citing works
(2004) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.291.21.2581 · Cited by 3,448 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[2] The economic effects of this disorder extend beyond the utilization of health and personal social services but also include its associated morbidity and mortality.[3,4] Schizophrenia has been shown to place a substantial economic burden on the health system and society in general.”
Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia.
(1972) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-76-6-1058_8 · Cited by 2,906 · see citing works
(2016) · Human Rights Documents online · doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9927-2014002 · Cited by 750 · see citing works
Global economic burden of schizophrenia: a systematic review
Chaiyakunapruk, N., Chong, H. Y., Teoh, S. L., Wu, D. B., Kotirum, S., & Chiou, C. (2016) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s96649 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
The Global Costs of Schizophrenia
Knapp, M. R. J., Mangalore, R., & Simon, J. (2004) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007078 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
The Economic Burden of Schizophrenia in the United States in 2013
Cloutier, M., Aigbogun, M. S., Guérin, A., Nitulescu, R., Ramanakumar, A. V., Kamat, S., DeLucia, M., Duffy, R. A., Legacy, S. N., Henderson, C., et al. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.15m10278 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
The effects of chronic medical conditions on work loss and work cutback
Kessler, R. C., Greenberg, P. E., Mickelson, K. D., Meneades, L. M., & Wang, P. S. (2001) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/00043764-200103000-00009 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Burden on the families of patients with schizophrenia: results of the BIOMED I study
Magliano, L., Fadden, G., Madianos, M. G., Caldas‐de‐Almeida, J. M., Held, T., Guarneri, M., Marasco, C., Tosini, P., & Maj, M. (1998) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s001270050073 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
A Self-Rating Scale for Measuring Neuroleptic Side-Effects
Day, J. C., Wood, G., Dewey, M., & Bentall, R. P. (1995) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.166.5.650 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Cost of schizophrenia in England.
Mangalore, R., & Knapp, M. R. J. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Economics and Schizophrenia: The Real Cost
Davies, L. M., & Drummond, M. (1994) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/s0007125000293161 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Human Development Report 2005-2006
Khawas, V. (2006) · Social Change · doi:10.1177/004908570603600312 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Comparing patterns and costs of schizophrenia care in five European countries: the EPSILON study
Knapp, M. R. J., Chisholm, D., Leese, M., Amaddeo, F., Tansella, M., Schene, A. H., Thornicroft, G., Vázquez‐Barquero, J. L., Knudsen, H. C., Becker, T. M., et al. (2002) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002._10310.x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Lay beliefs regarding causes of mental illness in Nigeria: pattern and correlates
Adewuya, A. O., & Makanjuola, R. O. A. (2008) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0305-x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Economic Burden of Schizophrenia in Canada
Goeree, R. A., OʼBrien, B. J., Goering, P. N., Blackhouse, G., Agro, K., Rhodes, A. E., & Watson, J. (1999) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674379904400506 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Davies, L. M., & Drummond, M. (1993) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.162.1.38 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Creed, F. H., Mbaya, P., Lancashire, S., Tomenson, B., Williams, B., & Holme, S. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7091.1381 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Cost of Schizophrenia to UK Society
Guest, J. F., & Cookson, R. F. (1999) · PharmacoEconomics · doi:10.2165/00019053-199915060-00007 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The Burden of Schizophrenia on the Family
Martyns-Yellowe, I. S. (1992) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.161.6.779 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Adewole, D. A., Akanbi, S. A., Osungbade, K. O., & Bello, S. (2017) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2017.27.52.11092 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Financial cost of treating out-patients with schizophrenia in Nigeria
Tg, S., OHAERI, J. U., Lawal, R., Haruna, A. Y., & Orija, O. B. (1997) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.171.4.364 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Psychiatric research in Nigeria: Bridging tradition and modernisation
Ayonrinde, O., Gureje, O., & Lawal, R. A. (2004) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.184.6.536 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Mental Health and Absence from Work: New Evidence from the UK Quarterly Labour Force Survey
Almond, S., & Healey, A. (2003) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/0950017003174007 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
An investigation of economic costs of schizophrenia in two areas of China
Zhai, J., Guo, X., Chen, M., Zhao, J., & Su, Z. (2013) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/1752-4458-7-26 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The functionality and economic costs of outpatients with schizophrenia in Taiwan
Lee, I. H., Chen, P. S., Yang, Y. K., Liao, Y. C., Lee, Y. D., Yeh, T. L., Yeh, L., Cheng, S. H., & Chu, C. L. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.10.004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Kilian, R., Roick, C., Matschinger, H., Bernert, S., Mory, C., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2001) · Psychiatrische Praxis · doi:10.1055/s-2001-17793 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Financial cost of treating Nigerian in-patients with schizophrenia.
Amoo, G., & Ogunlesi, A. O. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Knapp, M. R. J., McCrone, P., & Leeuwemkamp, O. (2008) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [18]Cloutier M Aigbogun MS Guerin A Nitulescu R Ramanakumar AV Kamat SA The economic burden of schizophrenia in the United States in 2013 J Clin Psychiatry 2016 77 764 71 27135986
- [29]Rice DP Miller LS Moscarelli M Rupp A Sartorius N The economic burden of schizophrenia: Conceptual and methodological issues, and cost estimates Handbook of mental health economics and health policy. Handbook of mental health economics and health policy 1996 1 Schizophrenia; Oxford, England John Wiley & Sons 321 34
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mutyambizi, C., Pavlova, M., Hongoro, C., Booysen, F., & Groot, W. N. J. (2019) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-019-0977-3 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Odunyemi, A., Rahman, T., & Alam, K. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16498-7 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The Societal Cost of Schizophrenia: An Updated Systematic Review of Cost-of-Illness Studies
Lin, C., Zhang, X., & Jin, H. (2022) · PharmacoEconomics · doi:10.1007/s40273-022-01217-8 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Chu, C., Roxas, N., Aguocha, C. M., Nwefoh, E., Wang, K., Dike, C., & Iheanacho, T. (2022) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-022-07703-1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Puspitasari, I. M., Sinuraya, R. K., Rahayu, C., Witriani, W., Zannah, U., Hafifah, A., Ningtyas, A. R., & Vildayanti, H. (2020) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s240058 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Mbadugha, C. J., Ogbonnaya, N. P., Iheanacho, P., Omotola, N. J., Ogbonna, P. N., & Anetekhai, C. J. (2023) · Qualitative Research Journal · doi:10.1108/qrj-06-2022-0082 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
John, M. O., & Cele, W. B. (2025) · International Journal of Older People Nursing · doi:10.1111/opn.70047 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Applicability and future status of schizophrenia as a construct in Africa
Gureje, O., & Ojagbemi, A. (2022) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2022.01.023 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cabello-Rangel, H., Arredondo, A., Diaz‐Castro, L., Reyes‐Morales, H., & Medina‐Mora, M. E. (2022) · Journal of Global Health Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.52872/001c.32312 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bhogal, J., Singh, S. P., Chadda, R. K., Sood, M., Shah, J. L., Iyer, S. N., & Madan, J. J. (2024) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2024.104066 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
John, M. O., & Cele, W. B. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03777-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Danladi, S., Lawal, N. B., & Alhassan, A. M. (2024) · FUDMA Journal of Sciences · doi:10.33003/fjs-2024-0801-2265
Cardiovascular Changes due to Antipsychotic Agents among First Episode Patients with Schizophrenia
Iyidobi, T., Iyidobi, T. O., Ndukuba, A., Amadi, K., Odinka, P. C., Muomah, R. C., & Ghasi, S. I. (2025) · Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.4103/njcp.njcp_609_24
AbdulAzeez, I., Oyewopo, A. O., ERINOSO, K. O., Omolade, A. F., Yusuff, J.-D. O., Hamza, U. A., Bello, M. B., Biliaminu, S. A., Akande, A., Okesina, A., et al. (2025) · GACOPA Medical Journal · doi:10.71396/1v3fsx04
Mammadov, B. B., Yıldızhan, E., & Tomruk, N. B. (2025) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104625
Erko, S., Tassew, B., & Dereseh, A. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7217174/v1
Odunyemi, A., Rahman, T., & Alam, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26610920
Analyzing the direct medical cost of schizophrenia in Hospital Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Fadhel, A. F., Alsuhibani, A. A., Chin, O. S., Chew, P. Y., Alrasheed, M. A., & Alhomaidan, A. M. (2026) · Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research · doi:10.1080/14737167.2026.2659625
John, M. O., & Cele, W. B. (2026) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics Plus · doi:10.1016/j.aggp.2026.100316
Cabello-Rangel, H., Arredondo, A., Diaz‐Castro, L., Reyes‐Morales, H., & Medina‐Mora, M. E. (2022) · Journal of Global Health Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.7189/001c.32312
- Authors
- Oloniniyi, I. O., Akinsulore, A., Aloba, O. O., Mapayi, B. M., Oginni, O. A., & Makanjuola, R.
- Affiliations
- Ekiti State University (NG)
- Corresponding author
- Oloniniyi, Ibidunni Olapeju
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice
- Publisher
- Scientific Scholar
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 01
- Pages
- 39-47
- ISSN
- 0976-3147 (ISSN-L)
- 0976-3155
- PMC
- PMC6337973
- OpenAlex
- W2899198672
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 0.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Health Systems, Economic Evaluations, Quality of Life
- Keywords
- schizophrenia, economic cost of illness, direct costs, indirect costs, productivity loss, hospital costs, cost determinants, Nigeria
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
