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Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory
Abstract
PART ONE: TOWARDS AN INTEGRATION OF MACRO AND MICRO DIMENSIONS OF RACISM Racism Today The Social-political Context The Netherlands Some Notes on Contemporary Racism in the US Women and Racism Black Women with Higher Education Conceptualizing Racism as a Process Racism A Working Definition The Notion of Everyday Racism PART TWO: METHODOLOGICAL QUESTIONS Introduction Methodology within Methodology Accounts The Interviewees Interviewing Method of Analysis PART THREE: KNOWLEDGE AND COMPREHENSION OF EVERYDAY RACISM Introduction General Knowledge and Scenarios of Racism Comprehending Racism Subjective and Objective Assessments of the Comprehension of Racist Events A Procedure for the Assessment of Racist Events Assessing Real-life Explanations of 'Unfair Treatment' Relating Cognitive to Social Processes of Understanding The Acquisition of Knowledge of Racism Reconstructing Black Women's General Knowledge of Racism PART FOUR: ANALYZING ACCOUNTS OF RACISM Introduction Analyzing Accounts of Racism Knowledge About Racism as an Evaluative Category in Verbal Accounts Heuristics, Interpretations and Evaluations in Reconstructions of Racist Events Racist Complications in Job Applications What happened? Examples of Real-life Accounts Conclusions PART FIVE: THE INTEGRATION OF RACISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE: THE STORY OF ROSA N. Introduction Rosa N. A Fragmentary Representation of Everyday Racism The Process of Everyday Racism in the Experience of Rosa N. The Macro Context of Experiences of Racism Conclusions Rosa N. and the Shared Experience of Racism PART SIX: THE STRUCTURE OF EVERYDAY RACISM Racism as Conflict Maintaining Process Hidden Agendas The Dominations of Euro-American Values The Basic Agenda Perpetuation of Exclusion and Subordination The Agenda of the Agenda Problematizing those who Problematize Racism The Structure of Everyday Racism CONCLUSIONS APPENDICES Appendix 1. Interview Guide Appendix 2. General Statements about Racism Appendix 3. 'Rosa N. File'
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“Indeed, racism and its intersections with other forms of subordination shape the experiences of People of Color very differently than Whites (Bell, 1986; 1998; Essed, 1991; Baca Zinn, 1989).”
From Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth (2005) · cites this paper as Essed, 1991
In the citing paper
“These contradictions underscore a broader societal pattern in which Black individuals face”
From Black Students’ Experiences of Anti-Black Racism on Campus (2025) · cites this paper as Essed, 1991
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Is it because I’m Black? A Black female research experience
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“CRT is considered useful in examining the effects of racism on individuals who conduct ‘race’ related research, particularly as racisms are a daily reality for Black people (Essed 1991).”
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“As Essed ( 1991 ) noted, scholars may have neglected to explore this micro-interactional level of racism.”
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“As part of these systems, cultural differences between Persons of Color and White Americans are often attributed to alleged cultural deficiencies among racial and ethnic minority populations (Essed, 1991).”
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“This perspective should shift our analytic focus from race to racism and from gender to gender inequality (Mullings, 2006), and ideally to “gendered racism” (Essed, 1991).”
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“A notable aspect of Essed’s (1991) definition of racism is that it is a process that depends on reification of what she describes as ‘‘everyday racism,’’ which is defined as ‘‘the situational activation of racial or ethnic dimensions in particular relations in a way”
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“Even if at times it may be more subtle, African Americans still report experiencing discrimination every day (Essed, 1991; Sue et al., 2007).”
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“For women of color, the experience of having one segment ofones identity (either ethnicity or gender) overlooked iscommon (Essed, 1991; Reid & Kelly, 1994).”
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“These small experiences might include experience of what Essed (1991) refers to as ‘everyday racism’.”
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Convivial Labour and the ‘Joking Relationship’: Humour and Everyday Multiculturalism at Work
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“…Anglo men deploying ethno-racial focused humour toward non-white migrant men in aggressive ways we know anecdotally and from the literature that this does occur particularly prominent in Anglo/white-dominated hyper-masculine workplaces and cultures more generally (see e.g. Essed 1991: 258).”
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“Racism can no longer be reduced to individual pathologies or a property of extremist right-wing groups, “because racism is by definition the expression or activation of group power (Essed, 1991, p. 37).”
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“Measures Discrimination—Participants' perceived everyday discrimination was assessed using the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS; Essed, 1991).”
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“These daily rituals are rarely the source of investigation and explanation yet contribute to how our lives and identities are structured (Essed 1991; Goldberg 1993).”
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“Intersectionality can also be used to examine interlocking systems of oppression (Carbado et al. 2013; Lorde 1984) such as gendered racism (Essed 1991; Szymanski and Lewis 2016) and microaggressions to show how Black women experience multiple layers of oppressions.”
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“Essed (1991) argues that it is important to take different scales of activity into account.”
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‘Working harder to be the same’: everyday racism among young men and women in Sweden
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“Power relations also play an important part, creating domains of conflict, although the specific forms they take are locally determined (Essed, 1991; Pred, 2001; Bhavnani, 2001).”
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“…policy of target setting, designed to support institutions in their efforts to address the ethnic imbalance of their PETE cohorts, is misappropriated and reproduced instead as a ‘lowering of standards’ discourse, a form of ‘everyday racism’ (Essed, 2001), that works to inferiorise their BME peers.”
Resilience in Ethnic Family Systems: A Relational Theory for Research and Practice
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“The interview schedule consisted of three questions that were given to the interviewees prior to the phone call: What influenced you to become a firefighter? Have you ever been treated differently because you are Black or a woman (Brooks & Perot, 1991; Essed, 1991; Rosenberg, Perlstadt, & Phillips, 1993)? Do you know…”
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“You've Gotta Set a Precedent”: Māori and Pacific voices on student success in higher education
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“Essed (1991) coined the term “everyday racism” to describe the subtle, but incessant ways that ethnic minorities experience racism in contemporary society.”
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“Double gestures of good intentions Racist representations circulate in society beyond individual will and meaning-making (Habel, 2012, p. 46 f), sometimes impregnated with good intentions to include or help subordinated groups (Essed, 1991; Hübinette et al., 2012).”
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Swedish surnames, British accents: passing among post-Soviet migrants in Helsinki
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Disentangling engineering education research's anti‐Blackness
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“Much less apparent, or perhaps just more acceptable, is the “ everyday racism ” (Essed, 1991, 2008; St. Jean & Feagin, 1998; Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003) that epitomizes anti-Black violence serving as tolerable toxicity within engineering culture.”
BackgroundResponding and navigating racialized microaggressions in STEM
Marshall, A. G., Pack, A. D., Owusu, S. A., Hultman, R. C., Drake, D. R., Rutaganira, F. U., Namwanje, M., Evans, C. S., Lopez, E. G., Lewis, S. C., et al. (2021) · Pathogens and Disease · doi:10.1093/femspd/ftab027 · Cited by 58
Dynamics of Power in Dutch Integration Politics
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Gendered homophobia in sport and coaching: Understanding the everyday experiences of lesbian coaches
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“, 1997), everyday heterosexism (Robinson, 1997) and everyday racism (Essed, 1991).”
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“…in relation to other racial identities in more nuanced and locally specific ways that emphasize the situational, relational, and historic contingencies that are reshaping and repositioning racially identities within the context of contested racial hierarchies (Essed 1991; Twine and Gallagher 2008).”
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Stress Exposure and Physical Health among Older African American and Caribbean Black Women
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“89), with higher values reflecting more frequently experiencing everyday discrimination (Essed, 1991; Keith et al., 2010; D. R. Williams et al., 1997).”
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“Collective racism occurs when dominant group members work to restrict or deny minority group members their basic rights and privileges ( Essed 1991 ).”
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“The perceived inaction of the nursing staff is interpreted through the ongoing lived experiences of discrimination faced by visible minority women and racist historical relationships that circumscribe interpersonal and institutional relationships (Essed 1991).”
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Ethnocentrism as a Form of Intuition in Psychology
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“This does not mean that there is not plentiful evidence of the social pervasiveness of everyday racism (Essed, 1991).”
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‘Civilising’ the Roma? The depoliticisation of (anti-)racism within the politics of integration
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“The focus is instead on the Roma’s way of life, their difference as distance from Portugueseness/Europeanness and their need to change: cultural difference is thus overemphasised to ‘control the process of “integration”’ (Essed 1991, 26).”
BackgroundImmigrant Professionals, Microaggressions, and Critical Sensemaking in the U.S. Workplace
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“Microaggressions Quintessentially communicative in character and similar to “everyday racism” (Essed, 1991) and “prejudiced discourse” (van Dijk, 1987), microaggressions are “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, de…”
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“The misdoing of one individual thus comes to stand as evidence of the corruption of his or her ‘kind’ (Essed, 1991).”
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“Staring is a more subtle type of discriminatory behaviour, but, nevertheless, it is socially significant (Essed, 1991).”
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“In short, everyday racism reproduces systemic racism, while systemic racism simultaneously shapes the spaces of everyday racism and is itself also an outcome of cumulative patterns of everyday racism [10].”
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“Essed (1991) argues that the damage of everyday racism arises from its cumulative impact.”
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“Puerto Ricans’position in the global “coloniality of power” (Quijano as cited in Grosfoguel & Georas, 2000) interlocks with race, ethnicity, culture, and language, forming a matrix of multiple systems of domination that constitute the basis for everyday racism (Essed, 1991).”
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“Experiences of racial discrimination may be evaluated as distinct threats and challenges to masculinity among African American men, which can further lead to detrimental mental health consequences (Essed, 1991; Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016).”
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“While overt racism is rising with the mainstreaming of far-right ideas (Mudde 2019), more covert forms of prejudice are still most common in Western countries (Essed 1990, 1991).”
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“To the authors’ knowledge, this is also the first study that examines whether Blacks are more likely to express anger, exhibit low self-control, and become depressed if they believe in the racist stereotype that they are violent and whether this stereotype and these felt emotions are related to offending. Also, this r…”
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“Latinos who work in white-collar occupations are frequently subjected to subtle forms of racism (Chávez 2011), which is the nuanced yet persistent expression of discrimination and exclusion experienced in daily life (Essed 1991; Bonilla-Silva 1997).”
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Gender, Race, and Class in Organizational Contexts
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Dealing with difference: the recursive and the new
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Discrimination in France: Between Perception and Experience
Brinbaum, Y., Safi, M., & Simon, P. (2018) · INED population studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76638-6_8 · Cited by 50
Beagan, B. L., Etowa, J. B., & Bernard, W. T. (2011) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2011.560145 · Cited by 50
“As suggested in theories of everyday racism (Essed, 1991), incidents do not need to happen to you personally to take a significant toll.”
BackgroundInfluentialExpanding research on the racial disparity in medical treatment with ideas from sociology
Malat, J. (2006) · Health An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health Illness and Medicine · doi:10.1177/1363459306064486 · Cited by 50
Metadata
- Authors
- Essed, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Essed, Philomena
- Venue
- Sage eBooks
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Published
- 1991
- OpenAlex
- W2141432205
- Cited by
- 2,461
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 174 · 2024: 175 · 2023: 138 · 2022: 171 · 2021: 162 · 2020: 128 · 2019: 118 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 110 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 74
- FWCI
- 19.24
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Sage eBooks (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
- Keywords
- everyday racism, Black women, job applications, unfair treatment
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