Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory

“Within the intersectional paradigm, there is unique attention to the ways in which sexism and racism intertwine and coalesce under certain conditions into what Essed (1991) coined as gendered racism – a phenomenon specific to the experiences of WoC.”

“Intersectionality is essential to recognizing how various identities, social and biological categories, intersect, overlap, and combine in multiple and often simultaneous ways to create systemic inequality, oppression, and discrimination (Collins 1986, 2000; Crenshaw 1991; Essed 1991).”

“Black women’s experiences of oppression arising from the nexus of race and gender have been described as gendered racism (Essed, 1991), a phenomenon that is correlated with psychological distress among Black women (Lewis & Neville, 2015).”

“Interpersonal racism includes the everyday slights, prejudices and discrimination occurring in routine interactions, that range from looks, jokes and comments, to actual physical violence (Essed, 1991).”

“At the micro level, interpersonal racism concerns interactions between individuals, the everyday looks, jokes, questions and comments, as well as the prejudices, discrimination and even violence that occur routinely (Essed, 1991).”

“…to partial-black biracial youth, because critical race theorists have long argued that “blackness” carries a unique stigma in the United States, with individuals of a partial black ancestry historically being designated as black (Davis 1991; Essed 1991; Feagin 2001; Rockquemore and Brunsma 2001).”

“The EDS (Forman et al. 1997) was developed based on a qualitative study among African American and African Surinamese women (Essed 1991).”

“…capture important aspects of racism and ethno-racial trauma presented throughout race scholarship (Bryant-Davis, 2007; Chavez-Duenas et al., 2019; Essed, 1991; D. Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000), this framework allows for the situation of racially motivated hate events and the subsequent…”

“For decades, Black communities navigate systemic oppression by responding to racial disparities and trauma drawing upon creative and culturally-specific actions and philosophies that enact resilience (Essed, 1991).”

“…describing its emblematic structure and/or its overall function in social hierarchies (e.g. van Dijk, 1984; Quasthoff, 1987; Billig, 1991; Essed, 1991; Wetherell and Potter, 1992; Reisigl and Wodak, 2001), or its distribution through mass media (e.g. van Dijk, 1991; Wodak and Matouschek,…”

“Through the years, many of these definitions, especially those emanating from the discipline of psychology have tended to construct and examine racism in terms of individual racial beliefs and feelings (see, for example, MacCrone, 1937) . However, since the 1990s various social scientists ( Essed, 1991 ; Van Dijk, 199…”

“…female, Moroccan parents) All these examples demonstrate the prevalence of what we can identify as casual racism, micro-racism, “everyday racism” (Essed 1991), or “microaggressions” (Sue 2010)— for example, experiences of verbal slights or insults, being stared at, or being regarded with…”

“The macro properties of racism encompass the racism engrained in government agencies, businesses and organisations responsible for legislation and policy-making; its effects can therefore be seen in labour policy, healthcare, education, or housing [33].”

“society that were both extreme and ‘everyday’ (Essed, 1991; Iganski, 2008) and have been exacerbated by the failure of agencies to implement joined-up, effective responses to biasmotivated behaviours (HMICFRS, 2018; Chakraborti, 2018).”

“When people of colour experience potentially racist events in their day to day lives, they assess, evaluate, and then categorize what they experienced, following a basic sequence (Essed 1991): 1.”

“…manifests in the “lived” experiences of targets rather than as measured in the stereotypes or attitudes held by potential perpetrators (D’Augelli, 1989; Essed, 1991; Feagin, 1991, 1992; Feagin & Sikes, 1994; Hyers, 2007; Hyers, Swim, & Mallet, 2006; Lalonde & Cameron, 1994; Landrine & Klonoff,…”

“Here, the research contributes to the exploration of culturalism (Ghorashi 2010), the role of women in the construction of national group boundaries (Yuval-Davis 1997) and everyday racisms (Essed 1991; Essed and Hoving 2014).”

“Email: L.J.Norman@leedsbeckett.ac.uk (Arnold, 1997; Essed, 1991).”

“…but less overt forms of intolerance and unfair treatment (e.g., being treated with less respect) that occur during commonplace social encounters (Essed, 1991) and include receiving poor restaurant service, being perceived as not being smart, being perceived as dishonest, and being followed and…”

“Long before we have learned to speak of microaggressions (Fleras 2016), the analysis of racism as an everyday practice that infects the practices of life, both institutional and interpersonal, comes to inform the response of anti-racists (Essed 1991; Bourne 2001).”

“Gendered racism, or the intersection of racism and sexism, is a term coined to capture the interwoven forms of discrimination experienced by African American women (Essed, 1991).”

“(2017)(1) USA Blacks Women – – – Longitudinal Survey Other (not mentioned, option-specific) Banks et al. (2006)(1) USA Blacks + – – Cross-sectional Interviews EDS (9, no option)”

“In other words, we focus on belonging as an embodiment and a lived experience influenced by racism or “racist practices” (Essed, 1991, p. viii).”

“Over time, the discourses that legitimize racial discrimination have adapted to modern norms, policies, and practices so that while inequalities remain, they appear to not be explicitly racist (DiAngelo, 2018; Essed, 1991; Said, 1978; Sue, 2010).”

“…it is evident that some ‘black’ people do not acknowledge the existence of institutional racism, as doing so would ‘damage their sense of being’ (Carter, Fenton and Modood 1999, p. 55), or regard their experiences as being ‘shaped’ (Modood et al. 1997) or conditioned by racism (Essed 1991).”

“Gendered racism describes the simultaneous experience of interlocking systems of racist and sexist oppression (Essed, 1991).”

“The student interview demonstrates the notion presented by Essed (1991; see also Essed & Hoving 2014b) that the dominant group only sees one truth and is therefore blind to the racism due to the self-protective qualities of the habitus.”

“…forms of racism include familiar practices that reflect systematic and institutional attitudes and behaviors (e.g., redlining of neighborhoods) (Essed, 1991; Harrell, 2000), as well as daily slights (e.g., being mistaken for someone who serves others [e.g., maid, bellboy] or receiving poor…”

“of social networking in normalizing social hierarchies, as well as consider intersecting factors as gender, class, race and age (Benschop 2009; Essed 1991; Hankivsky and Christoffersen 2008).”

“Philomena Essed ( 1991 ) coined the term ‘everyday racisms’ to characterize the intersecting and pervasive oppressions that Blacks face in society.”

“The silence that envelops racism turns into denial (Essed 1991, 2002), as evidenced by the lack of specific policies that address it (Mapedzahama et al. 2012).”

“Gendered racism captures the oppression Black women experience based on racist interpretations of gender roles (Essed, 1991).”

“Through historical archives, biographical memoirs, and oral traditions, Black women have been articulating their story of coping with gendered racism (Essed 1991).”

“Yet this represents an over-simplistic view of inclusion and the fact that the Surinamese community remains ‘characterized by structural disempowerment and pressures to assimilate culturally’ (Essed, 1991, p. 25).”

“They ‘mutually construct one another’ (Collins, 1998) and reinforce one another (Shields, 2008) throughout one’s existence (Collins, 1998, 2000; Crenshaw, 1989, 1991; Dill and Zambrana, 2009; Essed, 1991; Shields, 2008).”

“…2011; J. M. Jones, 1997), in which the attitudes and ideologies held by members of racially privileged groups lead to forms of social exclusion, lack of access to resources, as well as to the thwarting of rights and civil liberties for persons of color (e.g., voter suppression; Essed, 1991).”

“However, research on racial-minority and sexual-minority women show that they experience multiple forms of discrimination (Andersen & Hill Collins, 2004; Essed, 1991; Friedman & Leaper, 2010; Shorter-Gooden, 2004).”

“The second was the hegemony of white feminism and its one-sided focus on gender and sexuality as the locations of oppression, inequalities and activism, which silenced race and ethnicity as social hierarchies and power structures. de Los Reyes and Mulinari (2020) de fi ne hegemonic feminism as “ an institutionalized un…”

“Gendered racism, a construct derived from intersectionality theory (Cole, 2009; Crenshaw, 1989), is defined as simultaneous and compounding forms of oppression women of color experience on the basis of their marginalized race and gender, and has been primarily explored in samples of Black women (Essed, 1991; Lewis & N…”