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Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge
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“Without this clarity, the hypothesis risks becoming what philosopher Karl Popper would call a “metaphysical research program” (Popper 2014)—influential but ultimately unfalsifiable.”
From The myth of the Bayesian brain (2025) · cites this paper as Popper 2014
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Items 101–200 of 326
Consensus versus Unanimity: Which Carries More Weight?
Dellsén, F. (2021) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/718273 · Cited by 12
Elliott, S. (2019) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/axz052 · Cited by 16
Young persons as epistemological agents in social work assessment and intervention
Goh, E. C. L., & Baruch, H. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.027 · Cited by 12
Crisis in the Information Systems Discipline: A ReflectionPreprint
Bakshi, S. (2006) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.921787 · Cited by 12
Reviews and syntheses: Variable inundation across Earth's terrestrial ecosystems
Stegen, J., Burgin, A. J., Busch, M. H., Fisher, J. B., Ladau, J., Abrahamson, J. N., Kinsman‐Costello, L., Li, L., Chen, X., Datry, T., et al. (2025) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-22-995-2025 · Cited by 16
“It also aligns generally with the scientific method based on continuous iteration between conjectures (hypotheses/models) and refutation (falsification of hypothesis using observations and data) to drive scientific discovery and knowledge growth (Popper, 2014).”
Pfaff, H., & Schmitt, J. M. (2024) · Das Gesundheitswesen · doi:10.1055/a-2350-6435 · Cited by 11
THE POPPER-LAKATOS CONTROVERSY IN THE LIGHT OF 'DIE BEIDEN GRUNDPROBLEME DER ERKENNTNISTHEORIE
Zahar, E. G. (1983) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/34.2.149 · Cited by 11
Accuracy Vs. Simplicity: A Complex Trade-OffPreprint
Aragonès, E., Gilboa, I., Postlewaite, A., et al. (2002) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.332382 · Cited by 11
Participation, prediction, and publicity: avoiding the pitfalls of applying Rawlsian ethics to AI
Bay, M. (2023) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-023-00341-1 · Cited by 10
Are Methodologies Theories of Scientific Rationality?
Curtis, R. (1986) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/37.2.135 · Cited by 10
Formalizing falsification for theories of consciousness across computational hierarchies
Hanson, J. R., & Walker, S. I. (2021) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niab014 · Cited by 16
Huang, Y., Liu, X., Li, R., & Zhang, L. (2023) · El Profesional de la Informacion · doi:10.3145/epi.2023.mar.04 · Cited by 11
An Epistemic Account of Populism
Müller, J. F. (2023) · Episteme · doi:10.1017/epi.2023.39 · Cited by 9
Defining, Exploring, and Simulating the Digital Twin Metaverses
Grieves, M. W., & Hua, E. Y. (2024) · Simulation foundations, methods and applications · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69107-2_1 · Cited by 10
Persistent misunderstandings about evidence-based (sorry: informed!) policy-making
Bédard, P., & Ouimet, M. (2016) · Archives of Public Health · doi:10.1186/s13690-016-0142-z · Cited by 9
Borg, L. C. (2017) · The International Journal of Intelligence Security and Public Affairs · doi:10.1080/23800992.2017.1289747 · Cited by 9
Facing Immersive “Post-Truth” in AIVR?
Aliman, N.-M., & Kester, L. J. H. M. (2020) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies5040045 · Cited by 9
Theories of knowledge and culture
Hirschfeld, L. A., Atran, S., & Yengoyan, A. A. (1982) · Social Science Information · doi:10.1177/053901882021002001 · Cited by 9
MORE CLOTHES FROM THE EMPEROR'S BARGAIN BASEMENT
Feyerabend, P. K. (1981) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/32.1.57 · Cited by 9
The Collaborative Construction and Evolution of Pseudo-knowledge in Online Conversations
Introne, J. E., Iandoli, L., DeCook, J. R., Yildirim, I., & Elzeini, S. (2017) · International Conference on Social Media and Society (SMSociety) · doi:10.1145/3097286.3097297 · Cited by 9
Longo, L., & Orrú, G. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21151-6_19 · Cited by 10
Reeves, C. A. (1990) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/0741088390007003005 · Cited by 9
A Falsificationist Account of Artificial Neural Networks
Buchholz, O., & Raidl, É. (2022) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/721797 · Cited by 12
Revolutionary Attitudes in Democratic Regimes
François, A., Magni-Berton, R., & Varaine, S. (2019) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0032321719874362 · Cited by 8
Amplified Pain Syndrome—An Insupportable Assumption
Weisman, A., Quintner, J. L., & Masharawi, Y. (2021) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.0111 · Cited by 8
The Evolution of Communication as a Field
González, H. (1988) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365088015003005 · Cited by 8
Xu, Z. (2014) · FORUM Revue internationale d’interprétation et de traduction / International Journal of Interpretation and Translation · doi:10.1075/forum.12.2.08xuz · Cited by 7
Healthier information ecosystems: A definition and agenda
Introne, J. E., McKernan, B., Corsbie-Massay, C. L., Rohlinger, D. A., & Tripodi, F. B. (2024) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.24949 · Cited by 7
“However, to help lay the groundwork for intervention, complexity science must also be integrated with empirical research in a way that generates testable hypotheses and guides the collection and analysis of data (Kuhn, 1970; Popper, 2014).”
Burgess, M. (2024) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) · doi:10.1109/vl/hcc60511.2024.00021 · Cited by 7
Lim, B. Y., Cahaly, J. P., Sng, C. Y. F., & Chew, A. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714058 · Cited by 12
Quo vadis, internal auditing? A vision for internal auditing in 2030
Jokipii, A., & Rautiainen, A. I. (2023) · International Journal of Auditing · doi:10.1111/ijau.12324 · Cited by 8
Empirical Research in Affective Computing: An Analysis of Research Practices and Recommendations
Wessler, J., Schneeberger, T., Hilpert, B., Alles, A., & Gebhard, P. (2021) · International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction and workshops · doi:10.1109/acii52823.2021.9597418 · Cited by 9
COVID-19: a disruptive impact on the knowledge support of references
Zhang, Y., Li, H., Mao, J., He, G., Yang, Y., Jiang, Z., & Duan, Y. (2023) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-023-04764-9 · Cited by 8
Logical, Statistical, and Causal Reasoning: Compartmentalized or Generic Processes?
Klar, Y. (1991) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779143000042 · Cited by 7
Tantillo, D. J., & Laconsay, C. J. (2021) · Synthesis · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1720451 · Cited by 6
Hessels, R. S., & Hooge, I. T. C. (2021) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066211047826 · Cited by 7
Technological literacy: the construction of meaning
Liddament, T. (1994) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/0142-694x(94)90025-6 · Cited by 7
Uncertainty in Empirical Climate Sensitivity Estimates 1850-2017Preprint
Munshi, J. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3117385 · Cited by 7
Hands, D. W. (2008) · The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics · doi:10.1057/9780230226203.1285 · Cited by 8
Attachment, Religion, and Spirituality
Davis, E. (. B., & Granqvist, P. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009501019 · Cited by 6
Making sense of our existence: the scientific and religious worldview
Shaikh, S. A. (2018) · International Journal of Ethics and Systems · doi:10.1108/ijoes-08-2018-0116 · Cited by 6
Baker, S. A., McLaughlin, E., & Rojek, C. (2023) · European Journal of Cultural Studies · doi:10.1177/13675494231173536 · Cited by 15
Conflicts of interest and the truth of scientific discovery: an editor's perspective
Lüscher, T. F. (2016) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehw011 · Cited by 6
Truthlikeness for Quantitative Deterministic Laws
García-Lapeña, A. (2021) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/714984 · Cited by 6
Shenhav, Y. A. (1988) · Work and Occupations · doi:10.1177/0730888488015001001 · Cited by 6
Confessions of two applied researchers in search of principles
Kytle, J., & Millman, E. J. (1986) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(86)90037-6 · Cited by 7
Spender, J. ‐. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2158655 · Cited by 6
On the added value of multi-scale modeling of concrete
Zhang, J., Binder, E., Wang, H., et al. (2022) · Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering · doi:10.1007/s11709-021-0790-0 · Cited by 5
The foundations of a critical social theory: Lessons from the Positivismusstreit
Angelis, G. D. (2015) · Journal of Classical Sociology · doi:10.1177/1468795x14567286 · Cited by 5
Tensor-Centric Warfare I: Tensor Lanchester Equations
Ivancevic, V. G., Pourbeik, P., & Reid, D. J. (2018) · Intelligent Control and Automation · doi:10.4236/ica.2018.92002 · Cited by 5
COVID-19 Pandemic: Escape of Pathogenic Variants and MHC Evolution
Pontarotti, P., & Paganini, J. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23052665 · Cited by 5
Popper: Critical Rationalist, Conventionalist, and Virtue Epistemologist
Duerr, P. M. (2023) · HOPOS The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/724046 · Cited by 5
The Autonomy of Probability Theory (Notes on Kolmogorov, Rényi, and Popper)
Leblanc, H. (1989) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/40.2.167 · Cited by 5
Experimental Evidence and Psychotherapy
Binns, P. (1990) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/41.4.531 · Cited by 5
Qi, W. (2026) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.70369 · Cited by 4
Kalkhoven, J. T., Impellizzeri, F. M., Norris, D. L., & Edwards, W. B. (2026) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-026-02435-2 · Cited by 4
Did Einstein predict Bose-Einstein condensation?
Tomczyk, H. (2022) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2022.02.014 · Cited by 4
Can Philosophy be a Rigorous Science?
Philipse, H. (2009) · Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement · doi:10.1017/s1358246109990099 · Cited by 4
Evaluation Methods of Cause-Effect Pairs
Guyon, I., Goudet, O., & Kalainathan, D. (2019) · The Springer series on challenges in machine learning · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21810-2_2 · Cited by 4
Lukyanenko, R., & Parsons, J. (2020) · Progress in IS · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46781-4_3 · Cited by 5
Stacey, A. G. (2020) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-020-03761-6 · Cited by 4
A graphical inference mechanism
Mott, P., & Brooke, S. (1987) · Expert Systems · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0394.1987.tb00133.x · Cited by 4
One Theory to Fit them All: The Search Hypothesis of Emotion Revisited
Hanoch, Y. (2005) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/phisci/axi107 · Cited by 4
Westen, D. (1988) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/0732-118x(88)90044-x · Cited by 4
A FANTASY CONSTRUCT OF TELEVISION VIEWING
Lindlof, T. R. (1982) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365082009001003 · Cited by 4
Blanchard, R. C., DeWitt, T. J., Young, S., & Perkin, J. S. (2024) · Journal of Fish Biology · doi:10.1111/jfb.15665 · Cited by 3
Purdon, M., & Byakagaba, P. (2025) · Environmental Policy and Governance · doi:10.1002/eet.70015 · Cited by 4
Federated Learning for Semantic Communication Based on CNNs and Transformer
Li, S., Cai, Y., Deng, Z., Ba, X., Zheng, Q., Zhang, X., & Su, B. (2025) · International Journal of Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1155/int/3750087 · Cited by 3
Weak Models, Nil Hypotheses, And Decorative Statistics
O’Neill, B. (1995) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002795039004007 · Cited by 3
The Problem of the Empirical Basis in the Popperian Tradition: Popper, Bartley, and Feyerabend
Shaw, J. (2020) · HOPOS The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/710183 · Cited by 3
Transdisciplinary AI Observatory—Retrospective Analyses and Future-Oriented Contradistinctions
Aliman, N.-M., Kester, L. J. H. M., & Yampolskiy, R. V. (2021) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies6010006 · Cited by 6
Schwartzman, R. J. (2021) · Advances in linguistics and communication studies · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7439-3.ch015 · Cited by 3
Digitalization challenges for technogenic civilization
Maslanov, E. V. (2021) · The Digital Scholar Philosopher s Lab · doi:10.32326/2618-9267-2021-4-1-6-21 · Cited by 3
Introducing Information Literacy to Mathematics Classrooms: A Cross-Case Analysis
Erickson, A. (2019) · Numeracy · doi:10.5038/1936-4660.12.1.7 · Cited by 2
The Influence Of Continental And Analytic Philosophy On the New Thinking of Iran
Barkhordari, A. (2019) · Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.14738/assrj.63.6171 · Cited by 3
Cuhra, M. (2019) · Challenges · doi:10.3390/challe10020033 · Cited by 4
Kafaee, M., & Taqavi, M. (2021) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-021-00279-9 · Cited by 3
Vernon, R. A., & LaSelva, S. V. (1984) · Canadian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0008423900051234 · Cited by 3
Rajan, R. (2023) · Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research · doi:10.1007/s40961-023-00297-x · Cited by 3
Part Two: Aim-oriented Empiricism and Scientific Essentialism
Maxwell, N. (1993) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/44.1.81 · Cited by 3
Historical writing and rewriting: Gustav II Adolf, the French revolution, and the historians∗
Ringmar, E. (1993) · Scandinavian Journal of History · doi:10.1080/03468759308579260 · Cited by 3
Probabilistic Support, Probabilistic Induction and Bayesian Confirmation Theory
Rivadulla, A. (1994) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/45.2.477 · Cited by 3
When explanation is too hard (or understanding hijacking for novices)
Lebowitz, M. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00051700 · Cited by 3
Why Can't We All Just Get Along? Structural Modelling and Natural Experiments in Merger Analysis
Coate, M. B., & Fischer, J. H. (2011) · European Competition Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1853675 · Cited by 3
An Empirical Examination of the Evaluative AI Framework
Kornowicz, J. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2581260 · Cited by 2
“A key aspect of their framework is its emphasis on forward reasoning, as informed by the hypothetico-deductive model, contrasting with backward reasoning approaches (Croskerry, 2009; Popper, 2014).”
Jansen, A., Trepte, S., & Scharkow, M. (2025) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1093/anncom/wlaf023 · Cited by 3
Warren, S., & Churchill, C. (2023) · Performance Improvement Journal · doi:10.56811/pfi-21-0036 · Cited by 2
A sequential model of two-choice intensity identification
Johansson, R. C. G., & Ulrich, R. (2025) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2025.1561842 · Cited by 2
Acting Like a Liar: An Experimental Test of the Self-Presentational Theory of Deception
Giolla, E. M., & Stenbock, S. (2025) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-025-00486-z · Cited by 2
Against theory-motivated experimentation: Can random experimental choice lead to better theories?
Dubova, M., Moskvichev, A., & Zollman, K. (2026) · Collective Intelligence · doi:10.1177/26339137261421577 · Cited by 2
“Popper suggested that scientists should seek out those experiments most likely to falsify their theories (Popper, 2014), and in a related vein Mayo has suggested that scientists should subject their theories to severe tests (Mayo, 2018).”
Benedicto, S. C. D., de Benedicto, G. C., Stieg, C. M., et al. (2012) · Revista Economia & Gestão · doi:10.5752/p.1984-6606.2012v12n30p4 · Cited by 2
Microbes on the edge of Occam’s razor
Starokadomskyy, P. (2014) · Biology Direct · doi:10.1186/s13062-014-0025-6 · Cited by 2
A Verisimilitude Framework for Inductive Inference, with an Application to Phylogenetics
Vassend, O. B. (2018) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/axy054 · Cited by 2
The Role of Mindsets and Attitudes in Determining Future Awareness
Valerio, M. (2019) · Anticipation Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-03623-2_2 · Cited by 3
Siliquini-Cinelli, L. (2020) · International Journal of Law in Context · doi:10.1017/s1744552320000439 · Cited by 5
French Neopositivism and the Logic, Psychology, and Sociology of Scientific Discovery
Vaesen, K. (2020) · HOPOS The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/712934 · Cited by 2
Cuanto más aprendo de cómo se debe enseñar, peor maestra me siento
Chamizo, J. A., & Vázquez, A. M. (2021) · Educación Química · doi:10.22201/fq.18708404e.2021.3.79623 · Cited by 2
Management Conception Challenges in the Post-COVID-19 Era and the Stra.Tech.Man Analysis
Vlados, C. M., & Chatzinikolaou, D. (2022) · Management and industrial engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98052-8_2 · Cited by 2
Are Hermeneutics and the Austrian Approach Compatible? A Clarifying AnalysisPreprint
Iorio, F. D. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2289317 · Cited by 2
The Politics of Action in Therapy
Rosen, A. (1982) · Dramatherapy · doi:10.1080/02630672.1982.9689264 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Popper, K.
- Corresponding author
- Popper, Karl
- Venue
- Routledge eBooks
- Publisher
- Routledge
- Published
- 2014-05-01
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 2
- OpenAlex
- W3126953938
- Cited by
- 327
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 7
- FWCI
- 14.52
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Routledge eBooks (publishedVersion)
- The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Logic and Philosophy of Science
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History and Theory of Mathematics
- Keywords
- conjecture, refutation, scientific reasoning, hypothesis testing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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