Lunar Calendar (Time Measurement)

The surrounding text indicates that the event after the wAgy-feast must have occurred on a day between I AHt 23 and 29.

“The surrounding text, however, indicates that the event after the feast must have occurred on a day between I AHt 23 and 29.”

The Egyptian word for month (Abd) is written with the hieroglyph of the lunar crescent.

“Strong supporting evidence for such an early lunar calendar is that the Egyptian word for month (Abd) is written with the hieroglyph of the lunar crescent.”

Both wAgy-feast dates on the Raneferef papyri are incomplete.

“Both dates are incomplete: one records a wAgy-feast on the third month [...], day 28, with the season missing; the other mentions an event after the wAgy-feast in the first month of the Axt season, but lacks the number of the day.”

The Greek month names are similar to those in various sources from Deir el-Medina.

“it is obvious how similar the Greek month names are to those in various sources from Deir el-Medina.”

Preserved receipts from the temple administration of Soknopaiou Nesos, dating from 24 BCE to 91 CE, prove that priests were on duty for one lunar month.

“Preserved receipts from the temple administration of Soknopaiou Nesos, in the Fayum, dating from the years 24 BCE to 91 CE, prove that priests were on duty for one lunar month.”

In this way, the civil calendar date of the beginnings of 300 out of 309 total lunar months in 25 years can be easily determined.

“In this way, the civil calendar date of the beginnings of 300 out of 309 total lunar months in 25 years can be easily determined.”

On two papyri from the mortuary temple of Raneferef, a wAgy-feast date is mentioned.

“On two papyri from the mortuary temple of Raneferef, a pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty (c.2480 -2350 BCE), a wAgy-feast date is mentioned (Posener Kriéger 1985: 40-43).”

• cites Posener Kriéger 1985: 40-43Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Papyrus Carlsberg 9 illustrates a simple scheme that allows the determination of the civil-calendar date of the beginning of lunar months (LD 1) over a 25-year cycle.

“Papyrus Carlsberg 9 illustrates a simple scheme that allows the determination of the civil-calendar date of the beginning of lunar months (LD 1) over such a 25-year cycle.”

Many of the month names are quite consistent over time.

“Many of the month names are quite consistent over time.”

The first series consists of 25 numbers arranged in five lines that are interpreted to be the civil-day dates of LD 1 of the first lunar month of each of the 25 years.

“The first of these consists of 25 numbers arranged in five lines that are interpreted to be the civil-day dates of LD 1 of the first lunar month of each of the 25 years (Table 3, Axt, column I).”

Movable feasts in the el-Lahun archive can be identified by the fact that their dates change.

“Movable feasts in the archive (Luft 1992), of which the wAgy-feast is just one example, can be identified by the fact that their dates change”

• cites Luft 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The practice of recording lunar feast dates within the civil calendar does not justify the assumption that a separate lunar calendar was in use.

“This practice is completely analogous to how the dates of lunar religious feasts such as Easter are set today within the Gregorian calendar and does not justify the assumption that a separate lunar calendar was in use.”

These data provide additional strong evidence that there was once a lunar (or lunistellar) calendar in use prior to the inception of the civil calendar.

“They also provide additional strong evidence that there was once a lunar (or lunistellar) calendar in use prior to the inception of the civil calendar.”

Observations of the moon, as well as feasts celebrated at times that related to a certain lunar phase in temples, confirm that some form of lunar time-keeping was important throughout ancient Egyptian history.

“Observations of the moon, as well as feasts celebrated at times that related to a certain lunar phase in temples, confirm this.”

The majority of available material proves that the dates of feasts celebrated in a given month on a certain lunar day were simply recorded within the civil calendar.

“The majority of available material proves that the dates of feasts that were celebrated in a given month on a certain lunar day were simply recorded within the civil calendar.”

Complete lists of names for all 30 lunar days only begin to occur in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.

“Complete lists of names for all 30 lunar days only begin to occur in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, e.g., in the frieze on the north wall of the pronaos in the Temple of Edfu (Table 1).”

The latter Raneferef date likely references the immovable wAgy-feast, which was fixed on the first month of Axt, day 18, in the civil calendar.

“The latter date likely references the immovable wAgy-feast, which was fixed on the first month of Axt, day 18, in the civil calendar”

The former Raneferef date certainly relates to the movable wAgy-feast, whose dates were determined using lunar time-keeping.

“while the former one certainly relates to the movable wAgy-feast, whose dates were determined using lunar time-keeping.”

Starting with the Assyrian conquest of Egypt in 673 BCE and lasting until the end of the Dynastic Period, the Egyptians were ruled by people who used lunisolar calendars in their respective core areas.

“Starting with the Assyrian conquest of Egypt in 673 BCE and lasting until the end of the Dynastic Period (with only brief disruptions), the Egyptians were ruled by people who used lunisolar calendars in their respective core areas.”

It is very likely, although not definitely proven, that during the Predynastic and Protodynastic (Dynasty 0) Periods there was a lunar calendar in use in Egypt.

“It is very likely, although not definitely proven, that earlier, during the Predynastic and Protodynastic (Dynasty 0) Periods, there was a lunar calendar in use in Egypt.”

The use of foreign lunisolar calendars in Egypt remained rather limited-mainly to the circle of representatives of the rulers and those who interacted with them.

“Their use in Egypt, however, remained rather limited-mainly to the circle of representatives of the rulers and those who interacted with them.”

An intercalation mechanism is required if lunar years should stay aligned with solar years.

“This means that an intercalation mechanism is required if lunar years should stay aligned with solar years, the easiest solution being the addition of a thirteenth lunar month every third year.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A lunar month can last either 29 or 30 days.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The length of a lunar year of twelve lunar months is eleven days shorter than the tropical solar year.

Lippert (2009) showed that the respective beginnings of lunar months were very likely not determined by observation, but rather by the use of a schema comparable to the one on Papyrus Carlsberg 9.

“Lippert (2009) showed that the respective beginnings of lunar months were very likely not determined by observation, but rather by the use of a schema comparable to the one on Papyrus Carlsberg 9.”

• cites Lippert 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

These data indicate that in the religious and cultic sphere the moon with its changing shape played a very important role, even long after the civil calendar had been introduced.

“These data indicate that in the religious and cultic sphere the moon with its changing shape played a very important role, even long after the civil calendar had been introduced.”

Luft (1992) showed that the priests at el-Lahun were not on duty for whole lunar months in the civil calendar, but rather for a whole lunation starting on lunar day two.

“Luft (1992) was able to show that the priests at el-Lahun were not on duty for whole lunar months in the civil calendar, but rather for a whole lunation starting on lunar day two, which in the civil calendar may fall on any day.”

• cites Luft 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The present author follows the proposition of Belmonte and Lull (2023) that both sets of month names are indeed civil month names.

“the present author follows the proposition of Belmonte and Lull (2023: 373-376) that both sets are indeed civil month names.”

• cites Belmonte and Lull 2023: 373-376 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There is agreement that some form of lunar time-keeping was important throughout ancient Egyptian history.

“There is agreement, however, that some form of lunar time-keeping was important throughout ancient Egyptian history.”

Several important lunar feasts with corresponding cultic activities are known from the third millennium BCE onward.

“Several important lunar feasts with corresponding cultic activities are known from the third millennium BCE onward.”

By the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods at the latest, the Egyptians were aware that lunar phases repeat themselves to a high percentage after 25 years in their civil calendar.

“By the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods at the latest, the Egyptians were aware that lunar phases repeat themselves to a high percentage after 25 years in their civil calendar”