Longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying and psychological distress
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to examine reciprocal longitudinal associations between exposure to workplace bullying and symptoms of psychological distress and to investigate how self-labeled victimization from bullying explains the effects of bullying on health. METHODS: Logistic regression analysis was employed to examine the longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying and psychological distress in a representative cohort sample of 1775 Norwegian employees. The time-lag between baseline and follow-up was two years. Exposure to bullying behavior was measured with the revised version of the Negative Acts Questionnaire. Perceived victimization from bullying was measured by a single self-labeling question. Psychological distress was measured with the 25-item Hopkins Symptom Checklist. All variables were measured at both baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: After adjustment for psychological distress at baseline, exposure to bullying behavior [odds ratio (OR) 1.68, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.07-2.62) was found to predict subsequent psychological distress. This effect of bullying behaviors disappeared when victimization from bullying (OR 2.47, 95% CI 1.17-5.22) was entered into the regression. Both psychological distress (OR 2.49, 95% CI 1.64-3.80) and victimization (OR 2.61, 95% CI 1.42-4.81) at baseline were associated with increased risks of being a target of bullying behaviors at follow-up. Psychological distress (OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.39-4.52) and bullying behaviors (OR 2.95, 95% CI 1.39-4.52) at follow-up were associated with victimization. CONCLUSION: The mutual relationship between bullying and psychological distress indicates a vicious circle where bullying and distress reinforce their own negative effects. This highlights the importance of early interventions to stop workplace bullying and provide treatment options to employees with psychological distress.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Workplace bullying forms a serious health risk.
“For example, in the case of the work stress type of bullying, which forms a serious health risk (Nielsen et al., 2012;Verkuil et al., 2015)”
From Exposed to events that never happen: generalized unsafety, the default stress response, and prolonged autonomic activity (2017) · cites this paper as Nielsen et al., 2012
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Yaşlı Kadınlarda Üreme Sağlığı
Kokanalı, D., & Engin Üstün, Y. (n.d.) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 170,090 · see citing works
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 · Cited by 82,194 · see citing works
The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory
Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickels, K., Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974) · Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830190102 · Cited by 4,604 · see citing works
Survey response rate levels and trends in organizational research
Baruch, Y., & Holtom, B. C. (2008) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726708094863 · Cited by 3,462 · see citing works
Method Variance in Organizational Research: Truth or Urban Legend?
Spector, P. E. (2006) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428105284955 · Cited by 3,445 · see citing works
(1992) · Cited by 3,325 · see citing works
The content and development of mobbing at work
Leymann, H. (1996) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594329608414853 · Cited by 2,275 · see citing works
Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., & Notelaers, G. (2009) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370902815673 · Cited by 1,598 · see citing works
Self-citationCausal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.347 · Cited by 1,500 · see citing works
Workplace harassment from the victim’s perspective: a theoretical model and meta-analysis.
Bowling, N. A., & Beehr, T. A. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.998 · Cited by 1,320 · see citing works
Strand, B. H., Dalgard, O. S., Tambs, K., & Rognerud, M. (2003) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039480310000932 · Cited by 1,304 · see citing works
Bullying at work: Epidemiological findings in public and private organizations
Einarsen, S. V., & Skogstad, A. (1996) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594329608414854 · Cited by 1,009 · see citing works
Self-citationThe cognitive activation theory of stress.
Ursin, H., & Eriksen, H. R. (2004) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(03)00091-x · Cited by 1,004 · see citing works
The nature and causes of bullying at work
Einarsen, S. V. (1999) · International Journal of Manpower · doi:10.1108/01437729910268588 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Stressor-Emotion Model of Counterproductive Work Behavior.
Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10893-007 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
Zapf, D., Knorz, C., & Kulla, M. (1996) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594329608414856 · Cited by 777 · see citing works
Workplace Victimization: Aggression from the Target's Perspective
Aquino, K. F., & Thau, S. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163703 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Organizational Psychology : A Scientist-Practitioner Approach
Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008) · Cited by 603 · see citing works
Workplace bullying and the risk of cardiovascular disease and depression
Mika Kivimaki, B., Virtanen, M., Vartia, M. A.-L., Elovainio, M. J., Vahtera, J., & Keltikangas‐Järvinen, L. (2003) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.60.10.779 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
Workplace bullying and sickness absence in hospital staff
Kivimäki, M., Elovainio, M., & Vahtera, J. (2000) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.57.10.656 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Bullying in Danish work-life: Prevalence and health correlates
Mikkelsen, E. G., & Einarsen, S. V. (2001) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320143000816 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Self-citationThe impact of methodological moderators on prevalence rates of workplace bullying. A meta‐analysis
Nielsen, M. B., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317909x481256 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Self-citationBasic assumptions and symptoms of post-traumatic stress among victims of bullying at work
Mikkelsen, E. G., & Einarsen, S. V. (2002) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320143000861 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Self-citationBullying at work, health outcomes, and physiological stress response
Hansen, Å. M., Høgh, A., Persson, R., Karlson, B., Garde, A. H., & Ørbæk, P. (2005) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.078 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
(1980) · PubMed · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Predicting workplace victim status from personality
Coyne, I. J., Seigne, E., & Randall, P. (2000) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943200417957 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Measuring Exposure to Workplace Bullying
Nielsen, M. B., Notelaers, G., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/ebk1439804896-9 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Self-citationNettelbladt, P., Hansson, L., Stefansson, C. G., Borgquist, L., & Nordstr�m, G. (1993) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf00801743 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Felson, R. B. (1992) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1992.tb00360.x · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Different mechanisms to explain the reversed effects of mental health on work characteristics
de Lange, A., Taris, T. W., Kompier, M. A. J., Houtman, I. L. D., & Bongers, P. M. (2005) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.843 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Salin, D. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2008.04.004 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Niedhammer, I., Chastang, J., & David, S. (2008) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqm115 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
The nature, causes and consequences of bullying at work: The Norwegian experience
Einarsen, S. V. (2005) · Perspectives interdisciplinaires sur le travail et la santé · doi:10.4000/pistes.3156 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationWork, Psychological Well-being and Performance
Daniels, K., & Harris, C. (2000) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/50.5.304 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Psychological influences on acceptance of postsurgical treatment in cancer patients
Simmons, K., & Lindsay, S. (2001) · University of Hertfordshire Research Archive (University of Hertfordshire) · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Psychopathological features of a patient population of targets of workplace bullying
Brousse, G., Fontana, L., Ouchchane, L., Boisson, C., Gerbaud, L., Bourguet, D., Perrier, A., Schmitt, A., Llorca, P., & Chamoux, A. (2008) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqm148 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Effects of Mobbing on Justice Beliefs and Adjustment
Adorić, V. Ć., & Kvartuc, T. (2007) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.4.261 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Health outcomes and self-labeling as a victim of workplace bullying
Vie, T. L., Glasø, L., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.06.007 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationWorkplace Bullying, Psychological Distress, and Job Satisfaction in Junior Doctors
Quine, L. (2003) · Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics · doi:10.1017/s0963180103121111 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Romanov, K., Appelberg, K., Honkasalo, M., & Koskenvuo, M. J. (1996) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3999(95)00577-3 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
A 5-year follow-up study of aggression at work and psychological health
Høgh, A., Henriksson, M., & Burr, H. (2005) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15327558ijbm1204_6 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Work stress and incidence of newly diagnosed fibromyalgiaProspective cohort study
Mika Kivimaki, B., Leino‐Arjas, P., Virtanen, M., Elovainio, M. J., Keltikangas‐Järvinen, L., Puttonen, S., Vartia, M. A.-L., Brunner, E. J., & Vahtera, J. (2004) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(03)00620-2 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Sampling in research on interpersonal aggression
Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2007) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20229 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationAn Organizational Psychology Meta-Model of Occupational Stress
Beehr, T. A. (1998) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198522799.003.0002 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Gray, M. J., Pumphrey, J. E., & Lombardo, T. W. (2003) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0887-6185(02)00205-0 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Bullying and harassment in the workplace: developments in theory, research, and practice
Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., et al. (2010) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationInvestigating Complaints of Bullying and Harassment
Hoel, H., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/ebk1439804896-20 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Hesbacher PT, Rickels K, Morris RJ, Newman H, Rosenfeld H. Psychiatric-Illness in Family-Practice. J Clin Psychiatry. 1980;41(1):6-10.
- Painter K. Violence and vulnerability in the workplace: Psychosocial and legal implications. In: Davidson MJ, Earnshaw J, editors. Vulnerable worker: Psychosocial and legal issues. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1991. p160-78.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Workplace bullying and mental health: a meta-analysis on cross-sectional and longitudinal data
Verkuil, B., Atasayi, S., & Molendijk, M. L. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135225 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Brosschot, J. F., Verkuil, B., & Thayer, J. F. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.019 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Cyberbullying, psychological distress and self-esteem among youth in Quebec schools
Cénat, J. M., Hébert, M., Blais, M., Lavoie, F., Guerrier, M., & Derivois, D. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.07.019 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Trépanier, S.-G., Fernet, C., & Austin, S. (2016) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2015.1132200 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Associations of workplace bullying and harassment with stress reactions: a two-year follow-up study
TANIGUCHI, T., TAKAKI, J., HIROKAWA, K., FUJII, Y., & HARANO, K. (2016) · INDUSTRIAL HEALTH · doi:10.2486/indhealth.2014-0206 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Post-traumatic stress symptoms in an Italian cohort of subjects complaining occupational stress
Buselli, R., Carmassi, C., Corsi, M., Baldanzi, S., Battistini, G., Chiumiento, M., Massimetti, G., Dell’Osso, L., & Cristaudo, A. (2021) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920001595 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nielsen, M. B., Hetland, J., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Bergen (NO)
- Venue
- Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health
- Published
- 2011-06-22
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 38-46
- ISSN
- 0355-3140 (ISSN-L)
- 1795-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2002020916
- Cited by
- 214
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 35.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Universitetet i Bergen
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Workplace Violence and Bullying
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Keywords
- workplace harassment, psychological distress, bullying victimization, reciprocal effects, self-labeling, negative acts, employee health, longitudinal associations
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Stress, Psychological, Incidence, Prevalence, Logistic Models, Workplace, Crime Victims, Bullying
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
