To Show What an Indian Can Do: Sports at Native American Boarding Schools

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pratt's theories of Indian education were formulated while he was a lieutenant in the U.S. Cavalry and was assigned to take a group of Cheyenne prisoners of war to Ft. Marion.

“His theories of Indian education were formulated while he was a lieutenant in the U.S. Cavalry and was assigned to take a group of Cheyenne prisoners of war to Ft. Marion (formerly the Castillo de San Marcos) in St. Augustine, Florida.”

May combine two claims.

Female and male students at boarding schools were segregated from one another and rarely allowed to interact socially.

“Thus, female and male students at boarding schools were segregated from one another and rarely allowed to interact socially.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Justifications for boarding schools often contained vivid descriptions of grinding poverty while simultaneously referring to lurid images of sexual and bodily freedom.

“Thus, justifications for boarding schools often contained vivid descriptions of grinding poverty while simultaneously referring to lurid images of sexual and bodily freedom.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It is at Carlisle that sports first became instituted in the federal Indian boarding schools on an interscholastic basis, where nationally and internationally famous athletes emerged in such sports as baseball, football, and track.

“It is at Carlisle that sports first became instituted in the federal Indian boarding schools on an interscholastic basis, where nationally and internationally famous athletes emerged in such sports as baseball, football, and track.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Carlisle would not field a football team of any kind until 1891, a full decade after Pratt wrote his 1881 comment about rivaling Cornell, Amherst, or Columbia in athletic prowess.

“This is a remarkable statement, given that Carlisle would not even field a football team of any kind until 1891, a full decade after Pratt wrote this comment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

While at the fort, Pratt set up a school for the inmates at which they were taught to read and write English, were converted to Christianity, and were eventually released.

“While at the fort, Pratt set up a school for the inmates at which they were taught to read and write English, were converted to Christianity, and were eventually released.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A year later Pratt secured space to create his own school at Carlisle, an abandoned military outpost in south-central Pennsylvania.

“A year later Pratt was able to secure space to create his own school at Carlisle, an abandoned military outpost in south-central Pennsylvania (Witmer 1993).”

• cites Witmer 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In 1914 a joint congressional investigating committee opened hearings on corruption at the school, alleging that Pratt's replacement, Moses Friedman, was misappropriating money and mismanaging the school.

“In 1914 a joint congressional investigating committee opened hearings on corruption at the school, alleging that Pratt's replacement, Moses Friedman, was misappropriating money and mismanaging the school.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

From 1881, when Pratt first requested funds to build a gymnasium, physical education and sports were a part of the curricular life he envisioned creating at the school.

“From 1881, when Pratt first requested funds to build a gymnasium, physical education and sports were a part of the curricular life he envisioned creating at the school.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In 1904 the BIA dismissed Pratt as superintendent at Carlisle after he made remarks critical of the bureau.

“In 1904 the BIA dismissed Pratt as superintendent at Carlisle after he made remarks critical of the bureau.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pratt proposed to set up a permanent school for Indian children in 1878, first at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia.

“Pratt proposed to set up a permanent school for Indian children in 1878, first at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia, an institution that had been established for African American descendants of slaves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some tribes refused to accept citizen status.

“Recognizing this, some tribes refused to accept citizen status.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On the Saturday of the dedication, Haskell trounced Bucknell 36-0.

“On the Saturday of the dedication, Haskell trounced Bucknell 36-0.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Indian dances were followed by a display of physical education by female students.

“The Indian dances of that evening were followed by a display of physical education, hygiene, and gymnastics by female students who attended Haskell.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1924 Native Americans were granted federal citizenship.

“In 1924, only two years before the dedication of the stadium, Native Americans had been granted federal citizenship.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most athletes at Flandreau tended to accept lessons of conformity that McCloud rebelled against.

“He said that most athletes at the school tended to accept lessons of conformity that he rebelled against.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peairs defended his decision to allow the celebration by explaining how it fit into progressive narratives.

“H. B. Peairs defended his decision to allow such a celebration of Native American cultures by explaining how it fit into the progressive narratives that guided federal Indian policy:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The curriculum focused on vocational trade.

“The curriculum at most boarding schools focused mostly upon learning a vocational trade.”

• cites Lomawaima 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lomawaima 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For girls, this meant domestic or secretarial labor.

“For girls, this meant a form of domestic or secretarial labor, such as cooking, sewing, ironing, or typing.”

• cites Lomawaima 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lomawaima 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Boys learned mechanical skills, carpentry, and farming.

“Boys learned mechanical skills, carpentry, and farming techniques.”

• cites Lomawaima 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lomawaima 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Athletic teams were a core part of student life and culture at Flandreau when McCloud was there.

“Athletic teams were a core part of student life and culture when he was there.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Haskell discontinued its major college football schedule twelve years after this event.

“Only twelve years after this event, Haskell discontinued its major college football schedule.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Students often found in boxing a tremendous source of pleasure and excitement and a context in which they could claim their leisure time for their own.

“Students often found within the sport a tremendous source of pleasure and excitement and a context in which they could claim their leisure time for their own.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Officials from the BIA expressed both relief and support for the elimination of college competition.

“By contrast, however, officials from the BIA expressed both relief and support for the elimination of college competition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

From their earliest inception, boarding schools tended to blend tribes and nations in one school, making it harder for students to speak their own languages and fostering the learning of English.

“From their earliest inception, boarding schools tended to blend tribes and nations in one school, making it harder for students to speak their own languages and fostering the learning of English.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Although school administrators hoped that sports would provide a space in which leisure could be 'productively' occupied, there is evidence that those who attended boarding schools gained a great deal of pleasure from these events and made them their own.

“Although school administrators hoped that sports would provide a space in which leisure could be”

May combine two claims.

Boarding schools were concerned with the sexual behavior and desires of boys and did a great deal to monitor their lives in this regard.

“Boarding schools were also concerned with the sexual behavior and desires of boys and did a great deal to monitor their lives in this regard.”

• cites Annual Report for Chilocco Indian School 1934/35Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Sport, leisure, and play occupy a critical position in Arthur Harris's story.

“Yet sport, leisure, and play occupy a critical position in his story.”

May combine two claims.

For girls, physical education tended to be dominated by exercises; for boys, it tended to be dominated by athletic contests and sports.

“Whereas for girls physical education tended to be dominated by exercises, for boys it tended to be dominated by athletic contests and sports.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Almost all published recollections of boarding school by Native Americans contain some mention of athletics.

“Nevertheless, almost all published recollections of boarding school by Native Americans contain some mention of athletics.”

May combine two claims.

Only one year later, boxers from Chilocco traveled to amateur tournaments as far away as Boston and were celebrated on the pages of Ring magazine.

“Only one year later, boxers from the school traveled to amateur tournaments as far away as Boston and were celebrated on the pages of Ring magazine (Bradfield 1963, 122-23).”

• cites Bradfield 1963, 122-23Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Boxing flourished at boarding schools between 1931 and 1948.

“Because of such contradictory motives and imperatives, boxing flourished at boarding schools between 1931 and 1948.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Haskell eventually eliminated competition against college teams altogether by March 1939.

“Haskell eventually eliminated competition against college teams altogether by March 1939.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A man who had boxed for Santa Fe gained from boxing a strong sense of self-confidence.

“A man who had boxed for Santa Fe, for example, discussed with me how he gained from boxing a strong sense of self-confidence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Between 1925 and 1926, motivated in large part by the success and national fame of the Haskell football team during the 1920s, Native Americans from across the United States launched a massive fund-raising campaign to construct a new, 10,500-seat stadium on Haskell's campus.

“Between 1925 and 1926, motivated in large part by the success and national fame of the Haskell football team during the 1920s, Native Americans from across the United States launched a massive fund-raising campaign to construct a new, 10,500-seat stadium on Haskell's campus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Boxing matches were exciting events where students who felt cooped up on campus could interact with a variety of people, see their matrons, teachers, and superintendents yelling and cheering, or simply socialize.

“Boxing matches were exciting events where students who generally felt cooped up all week on campus could interact with a variety of people; where they could see their matrons, teachers, and superintendents yelling and cheering; or where they could simply socialize.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

That Halloween weekend, representatives of more than seventy tribes and nations gathered at Haskell to dedicate the stadium.

“That Halloween weekend, representatives of more than seventy tribes and nations gathered at Haskell to dedicate the stadium”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peairs hoped popular representations would present Indian cultures as a thing of the past.

“Peairs hoped popular representations would present Indian cultures as a thing of the past.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many Haskell alumni were among the most vocal in their opposition to the elimination of a college schedule for the football team.

“Many Haskell alumni were among the most vocal in their opposition to the elimination of a college schedule for the football team.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Superintendent Peairs reflected ideas about sports consistent with Progressive Era reformers, suggesting physical recreation would improve physical health and moral character and promote delayed gratification, hard work, and individual responsibility.

“He suggested that physical recreation would improve not only physical health but also moral character, and that it would promote the ideals of delayed gratification, hard work, and individual responsibility.”

• cites Native American of October 12Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The commissioner's office sent investigators to Chilocco in response to an anonymous letter; they uncovered no evidence of embezzlement, but the prominence of the boxing team did cause concern at the BIA.

“The commissioner's office sent investigators to Chilocco in response to this letter.They uncovered no evidence of embezzlement, but the prominence of the boxing team did cause concern at the BIA.”

• cites Anonymous Letter 1933Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two years later Commissioner Collier voiced his criticism of boxing at Chilocco.

“Two years later commissioner Collier, responding to an article published in an Oklahoma newspaper, voiced his criticism of boxing at the school.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

By 1930 many other boarding schools made sports a core part of their curricular and extracurricular life for students.

“1930 many other boarding schools made sports a core part of their curricular and extracurricular life for students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Published biographies and autobiographies of Native Americans often contain passages in which the author recounts experiences at boarding school and memories of athletics at these institutions.

“Published biographies and autobiographies (often presented as”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Unlike in the 1930s, during the 1950s boarding schools returned to a strict assimilationist curriculum, ordering students to wear uniforms and speak only English.

“Unlike in the 1930s, during the 1950s boarding schools returned to a strict assimilationist curriculum, ordering students to wear uniforms and speak only English.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Harris made the decision to attend Hampton over the Fourth of July weekend in 1910 while participating in a baseball tournament playing for the Phoenix Indian School against both Indian and white teams.

“However, he made the decision to attend the school over the Fourth of July weekend in 1910 while participating in a baseball tournament playing for the Phoenix Indian School against both Indian and white teams.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

She found the discipline that she faced at Thoreau extremely oppressive, involving severe punishments such as hard labor and ridicule.

“Yet she found the discipline that she faced at Thoreau extremely oppressive, involving severe punishments such as hard labor and ridicule.”

May combine two claims.

Many articles about the weekend's festivities did not construct a neat, progressive narrative but instead were sensational accounts that confirmed some of the worst fears held by pastors and ministers who protested against the powwow.

“Many articles about the weekend's festivities did not construct a neat, progressive narrative but instead were sensational accounts that actually confirmed some of the worst fears held by the pastors and ministers who protested against the powwow.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Harris wanted to go to boarding school to escape the poverty of his reservation and his family.

“Yet Harris also reports that he wanted to go to boarding school to escape the poverty of his reservation and his family.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Indian Ceremonial presented Pueblo arts and traditions as entirely compatible with middle-class tastes, commodity buying, and family living.

“In this case, the Indian Ceremonial presented Pueblo arts and traditions as entirely compatible with middle-class tastes, commodity buying, and family living.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

W. Carson Ryan worried in a memo about professionalism creeping into boarding school athletics and asked if there was a need to review athletic policy at boarding schools.

“Its director of education, W. Carson Ryan, worried in a memo about professionalism creeping into boarding school athletics, and he asked if there was a need to review athletic policy at boarding schools.”

May combine two claims.

Chilocco's team performed well even though it had been hastily trained.

“Chilocco's team performed well even though it had been hastily trained.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This woman's father had sent her to boarding school because of economic hardship at home; he felt that learning English and skills like typing could help her live a more prosperous life.

“This woman's father had sent her to boarding school because of economic hardship at home.He felt that learning English and skills like typing could help her live a more prosperous life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At Chilocco, boxing matches were especially exciting events, drawing both students and people from around the region.

“At Chilocco, boxing matches were especially exciting events, drawing both students and people from around the region.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

They ultimately raised between $180,000 and $250,000, and in the fall of 1926 the new venue was ready.

“They ultimately raised between $180,000 and $250,000, and in the fall of 1926 the new venue was ready.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All of these narrators remember sports in a positive light, even if they had negative memories of boarding school in general.

“All of these narrators remember sports in a positive light, even if they had negative memories of boarding school in general.”

May combine two claims.

Schools expressed particular concern with the way that boys internalized the discipline that they learned in school, and much of the schools' efforts centered upon attention to student leisure time.

“Schools expressed particular concern with the way that boys internalized the discipline that they learned in school, and as with female students, much of the schools' efforts centered upon attention to student leisure time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The break from college athletics came in the spring of 1939, and it brought Haskell down to the high school level and involved the promotion of more intramural sports.

“The break from college athletics came in the spring of 1939, and it not only brought Haskell down to the high school level, but it also involved the promotion of more intramural sports.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both males and females often reported that campus life was confining and that they grew weary of life within the walls of an Indian school.

“Both males and females often reported that campus life was confining and that they grew weary of life within the walls of an Indian school.”

May combine two claims.

Outside of occasional references to Jim Thorpe, most written narratives of Native American history have not treated sports (and have only very recently begun to treat boarding schools) as something of particular importance.

“Outside of occasional references to Jim Thorpe, most written narratives of Native American history have not treated sports (and have only very recently begun to treat boarding schools) as something of particular importance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

By the early 1930s Haskell was no longer allowed to enroll students more than twenty-one years of age or to perpetually keep good football players enrolled by continually moving them from one vocational program to another after each had been completed.

“By the early 1930s Haskell was no longer allowed to enroll students more than twenty-one years of age or to perpetually keep good football players enrolled by continually moving them from one vocational program to another after each had been completed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Sports do not play a prominent role in Native Americans' overall narratives.

“Sports certainly do not play a prominent role in Native Americans' overall narratives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The most powerful argument on the floor of Congress came from Democratic Representative Charles D. Carter, a member of the Chickasaw (rather than Choctaw) tribe from Oklahoma.

“Perhaps the most powerful argument on the floor of Congress came from Democratic Representative Charles D. Carter, a member of the Chickasaw (rather than Choctaw) tribe from Oklahoma.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

From the founding of the boarding schools in the late nineteenth century, the curricula stressed vocational trades for boys, and this remained true during the 1930s.

“From the founding of the boarding schools in the late nineteenth century, the curricula stressed vocational trades for boys.This remained true during the 1930s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1912, after Democrats had gained control of the sixty-second Congress, Hampton lost the support it had had in Washington for funding.

“In 1912, after Democrats had gained control of the sixty-second Congress, Hampton lost the support it had had in Washington for funding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In January 1995, the author attended a girls' basketball game at the Santa Fe Indian School and saw firsthand the diverse representations and experiences that are a part of Native American sports.

“In January 1995 I attended a girls' basketball game at the Santa Fe Indian School and saw firsthand the diverse representations and experiences that are a part of Native American sports.”

May combine two claims.

Documents left by school officials reveal that they thought a great deal about girls' physical training and that they thought of this aspect of the curriculum as central to lessons about behavior, sexuality, and discipline.

“Documents left by school officials reveal that they thought a great deal about girls' physical training and that they thought of this aspect of the curriculum as central to lessons about behavior, sexuality, and discipline.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A woman who attended Thoreau Indian School in western New Mexico during the 1950s felt that the boarding school requirement that she wear shorts was an infringement on her identity.

“Rather than understanding the Navajo rules against females wearing shorts as a restriction, she felt that the boarding school requirement that she wear them was an infringement on her identity:”

May combine two claims.

Female physical education heavily emphasized exercises and gymnastic drilling oriented toward education in new identity, and placed less emphasis on competitive sports and athletics.

“Female physical education heavily emphasized exercises and gymnastic drilling oriented toward this education in new identity.It placed less emphasis on competitive sports and athletics.”

May combine two claims.

Although girls did play intramural sports, and occasionally played interscholastic sports, the overwhelming emphasis of girls' physical activity focused upon bodily discipline.

“Although girls did play intramural sports, and occasionally played interscholastic sports, the overwhelming emphasis of girls' physical activity focused upon the kind of bodily discipline that Lomawaima mentions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Chilocco annual report for 1937 makes only a passing reference to the intramural sports provided for girls.

“The Chilocco annual report for 1937, for example, makes only a passing reference to the intramural sports provided for girls.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The article notes that in spite of grinding poverty and a reservation economy in which 75 percent of the people were unemployed at the time of the article, the Crow were such fanatics about basketball that their schools had won ten Class A, B, and C championships between 1980 and 1990.

“The article notes that in spite of grinding poverty and a reservation economy in which 75 percent of the people were unemployed at the time of the article, the Crow were such fanatics about basketball that their schools had won ten Class A,B, and C championships between 1980 and 1990.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The annual report for 1936 states that not enough attention had been paid by the home department on play activities, and that more encouragement and direction of outdoor sports, more spontaneous play, and opportunities to mingle out in the open were needed.

“The annual report for 1936 states, Not enough attention has been paid by the home department on play activities this year.More encouragement and direction of outdoor sports is needed; more spontaneous play and opportunities to mingle out in the open are likewise necessary.”

May combine two claims.

The federal government concentrated its assimilation effort on land use and the education of children.

“The federal government began to isolate two areas in which to concentrate this effort: land use and the education of children.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A dialogic approach to ethnic identity is particularly relevant to boarding school history, where students from multiple cultures and backgrounds intermingled and created complex identities and affiliations.

“Such a dialogic approach to ethnic identity is particularly relevant to boarding school history, where students from multiple cultures and backgrounds intermingled and created complex identities and affiliations.”

May combine two claims.

Although the late nineteenth century represented the first significant investment by the federal government in Native American education, schools never received adequate funding, and most faced severe financial hardships.

“Although the late nineteenth century represented the first significant investment by the federal government in Native American education, schools never received adequate funding, and most faced severe financial hardships (Ellis 1996).”

• cites Ellis 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Sports publicly demonstrated controlled violence and physical competition, rationally coordinated bodily movement, and a corporate hierarchy of human organization.

“They publicly demonstrated controlled violence and physical competition, rationally coordinated bodily movement, and a corporate hierarchy of human organization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Pratt must certainly have written his 1881 statement with some knowledge of the public relations possibilities of fielding a nationally renowned athletic team.

“Pratt must certainly have written this statement with some knowledge of the public relations possibilities of fielding a nationally renowned athletic team.”

May combine two claims.

Football and other sports ended up creating problems at Indian boarding schools even as they provided a source of public display consistent with the boarding school mission.

“Football and other sports, however, ended up creating problems at Indian boarding schools even as they provided a source of public display consistent with the boarding school mission.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Each representation of sports reveals conflicts over racial ideology, assimilation, exploitation, violence, sexuality, and the meaning of success.

“Each representation of sports reveals conflicts over racial ideology, assimilation, exploitation, violence, sexuality, and the meaning of success.”

May combine two claims.

Boarding schools demanded that Native Americans reject their histories and identities and that students appropriate identities that served the ideological interests consistent with their own subjugation.

“these institutions demanded that Native Americans reject their histories and identities and that students appropriate identities that served the ideological interests that were consistent with their own subjugation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Native Americans could not erase their own past from their minds and memories.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Carlisle and Haskell played a central role in establishing athletics as a fundamental part of boarding school life for Native Americans in the United States.

“it is important to recognize the central role that both played in establishing athletics as a fundamental part of boarding school life for Native Americans in the United States.”

May combine two claims.

The demands that schools made upon students were not always consistent, and their inconsistencies reflect areas in which federal policy failed to achieve totality, where students could find room to create their own identities and act on their own behalf.

“the demands that schools made upon students were not always consistent, and their inconsistencies reflect areas in which federal policy failed to achieve totality, where students could find room to create their own identities and act on their own behalf.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Foley interprets a local high school football team as engaged in a community ritual that ultimately reinforces patriarchal norms, race and class hierarchies, and militaristic values.

“Foley examines a local high school football team as an ethnographer and interprets it as being engaged in a community ritual that ultimately reinforces patriarchal norms, race and class hierarchies, and militaristic values.”

• cites FoleyNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

At Carlisle, school leaders, particularly Richard Henry Pratt, discovered in sports a form of popular culture that was the most effective way to publicly represent an equation between success and the disciplined control over bodily passions.

“At Carlisle, school leaders, particularly the school's founder, Richard Henry Pratt, discovered in sports a form of popular culture that was the most effective way to publicly represent an equation between success and the disciplined control over bodily passions.”

May combine two claims.

For both fans and players, football evoked animalistic aggression, yet a large part of its ideological power lay in the way that it rewarded the ability to rationally channel and control this same violent passion.

“For both fans and players, football evoked animalistic aggression.Yet a large part of its ideological power lay in the way that it rewarded the ability to rationally channel and control this same violent passion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Officially sponsored high school sports teams alienate most people from participation in the game, as the majority experience a high school game as passive spectators.

“officially sponsored high school sports teams alienate most people from participation in the game, as the majority experience a high school game as passive spectators (62-67).”

• cites Aronowitz 1973Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Mainstream sports, like football, were first introduced at boarding schools as part of a larger effort to erase Native American culture and history from memory.

“Mainstream sports, like football, were first introduced at boarding schools as part of a larger effort to erase Native American culture and history from memory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Pratt's public writings and those of his private letters in which he defends football portray his interest in the game as a rational one, as emanating from his sincere mission to uplift the Indian race to the highest levels of civilization.

“Pratt's public writings and those of his private letters in which he defends football portray his interest in the game as a rational one, as emanating from his sincere mission to uplift the Indian race to the highest levels of civilization.”

May combine two claims.

Pratt's private letters show more concern with winning and a willingness to bend principles in order to create a more competitive team.

“They show more concern with winning and a willingness to bend principles in order to create a more competitive team.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Warner's reflections are sympathetic yet paternal.

“Warner's reflections are sympathetic yet paternal.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Pratt argued that football helps develop masculine character traits.

“He goes on to argue for the virtues of football by writing that it helps develop masculine character traits:”

• cites Pratt PapersNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These exhibitions resembled the famous before-and-after photographs that local photographer John Nicholas Choate took for the school.

“These exhibitions resembled the famous before-and-after photographs that local photographer John Nicholas Choate took for the school.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The articles by Warner cannot be read only as expressions of monolithic stereotypes; instead, they contain conflicting ideas about the meaning of sports at boarding schools and the relationship of athletics and education to empire.

“Yet the articles by Warner cannot be read only as expressions of monolithic stereotypes; instead, they contain conflicting ideas about the meaning of sports at boarding schools and the relationship of athletics and education to empire.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This aspect of the early decades of Native American boarding school sports extends beyond the mind-set of Richard Henry Pratt.

“This aspect of the early decades of Native American boarding school sports is a crucial one, for it extends beyond the mind-set of Richard Henry Pratt.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This letter catches Pratt in a moment of hypocrisy.

“This letter catches Pratt in a moment of hypocrisy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It reflects larger cultural issues at the heart of the effort to assimilate Native Americans through boarding schools, and it reveals a level of ambivalence toward assimilation itself that may help us understand how athletics might have become a meaningful aspect of boarding school life for students.

“It reflects larger cultural issues at the heart of the effort to assimilate Native Americans through boarding schools, and it reveals a level of ambivalence toward assimilation itself that may help us understand how athletics might have become a meaningful aspect of boarding school life for students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Members of Congress, particularly senators from the West tired of funding boarding schools, were looking for reasons to close Carlisle's doors.

“Members of Congress, particularly senators from the West tired of funding boarding schools, were looking for reasons to close Carlisle's doors, and they received help from Warner's players.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Pratt contended that the game turned these boys into men, that it both symbolically and literally served as a vehicle to transmit masculine character traits to young Native American males.

“Just as important, however, is his contention that the game turned these boys into men, that it both symbolically and literally served as a vehicle to transmit masculine character traits to young Native American males.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Collier's pieces provide a valuable illustration of the popular ideas that the Carlisle Indian School generated through its football team and the cultural contradictions that were generated by popular representations of Carlisle athletics.

“Yet they also provide a valuable illustration of the popular ideas that the Carlisle Indian School generated through its football team and the cultural contradictions that were generated by popular representations of Carlisle athletics.”

May combine two claims.

Physical education and sports at Carlisle were meant to benefit students' physical health and recreational needs and also served as a source of public display.

“As much as this was meant to benefit the physical health and recreational needs of students, it was also a source of public display.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Collier's pieces reveal a great number of sometimes-conflicting sides to Warner: his occasionally overt racism, his grudging respect for the oppression felt by Native Americans, his paternalism, and his exploitative use of Native American customs.

“The Collier's pieces reveal a great number of sometimes-conflicting sides to Warner: his occasionally overt racism, his grudging respect for the oppression felt by Native Americans, his paternalism, and his exploitative use of Native American customs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Warner's articles, the Carlisle athletes become an American success story right out of the pages of a Horatio Alger novel.

“In Warner's articles, the Carlisle athletes become an American success story right out of the pages of a Horatio Alger novel.”

May combine two claims.

Neither Oriard nor Churchill, Hill, and Barlow attempt to understand how the ideas about race communicated through sports coverage of Carlisle might have intersected with or reflected ideas about gender, sexuality, and desire, and neither analyzes the relationship between race and empire.

“In addition, neither Oriard nor Churchill, Hill, and Barlow attempt to understand how the ideas about race communicated through sports coverage of Carlisle might have intersected with or reflected ideas about gender, sexuality, and desire, and neither analyzes the relationship between race and empire.”

• cites Oriard 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Churchill, Hill, and Barlow 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Warner's writing, it is actually the marginal status of the Indian School teams that he recalled as having given them energy and as having provoked national interest.

“Indeed, in Warner's writing, it is actually the marginal status of the Indian School teams that he recalled as having given them energy and as having provoked national interest.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Desires and fantasies teem just beneath the surface of the rationalist discourse that Pratt uses to defend the legitimacy of fielding a nationally recognized football team.

“Desires and fantasies teem just beneath the surface of the rationalist discourse that Pratt uses to defend the legitimacy of fielding a nationally recognized football team.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The before-and-after photographs were meant to show the dramatic transformation that a Carlisle education made in students, transforming them from primitive natives to members of Western civilization.

“These photographs were meant to show the dramatic transformation that a Carlisle education made in students, transforming them from primitive natives to members of Western civilization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It was Warner's morals, not the players', that raised the most serious questions.

“Yet it was Warner's morals, not the players', that raised the most serious questions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is no doubt that Warner provided numerous examples of the kind of stereotyping that both Oriard and Churchill et al. show pervading popular coverage of Native American athletics.

“There is no doubt that Warner provided numerous examples of the kind of stereotyping that both Oriard and Churchill et al. show pervading popular coverage of Native American athletics.”

• cites Oriard 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Churchill, Hill, and Barlow 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Warner's public memoir represents a kind of public amnesia, or at the very least a heroic work of rehabilitation.

“It represents a kind of public amnesia, or at the very least a heroic work of rehabilitation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The article 'The Temptations of an Athlete' represents a retreat from high-profile athletics at Carlisle.

“The article represents a retreat from high-profile athletics at Carlisle.”

May combine two claims.

Montezuma never mentioned Warner by name, but his fire was directed at Warner and the tactics he was alleged to have employed.

“Although he never mentioned Warner by name, his fire was clearly directed at the legendary coach and the tactics he was alleged to have employed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

These descriptions make the dances seem dangerous and portray them as exotic and sexually attractive.

“These descriptions not only make the dances seem dangerous; they portray them as exotic and sexually attractive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Such interpretations do not adequately account for the diverse ways events such as the powwow have been experienced and interpreted.

“Such interpretations certainly create neat, progressive, linear narratives of assimilation and integration into dominant society, but they do not adequately account for the diverse ways in which events such as the powwow have actually been experienced and interpreted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Football is established as the modern replacement for war.

“Football is established as the modern replacement for war.”

May combine two claims.

After 1928, the Meriam commission issued a scathing report criticizing wretched conditions at many schools, highly regimented military-style discipline, and lack of respect for diverse Native American cultures and traditions.

“This became particularly true after 1928, when a commission headed by Lewis Meriam issued a scathing report that criticized the wretched conditions at many schools, the highly regimented, military-style discipline they employed, and the lack of respect payed to diverse Native American cultures and traditions (Meriam et al. 1928).”

• cites Meriam et al. 1928Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The outcome of a football game has no lasting consequences.

“Unlike war, however, the outcome of a football game has no really lasting consequences-no land is ceded, nobody (hopefully) is killed, no treaties need to be signed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Girls were taught to be caretakers of the family, nurturing their husbands' and children's moral purity and Godly virtue.

“This meant that girls were taught to be the caretakers of the family, nurturing their husbands' and children's moral purity and Godly virtue.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These media representations only let us see what whites thought of these events.

“These media representations only let us see what whites thought of these events.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There are problems with understanding the homecoming celebration as only nostalgia.

“There are some problems with understanding the homecoming celebration in this manner, with concluding only that the intertribal celebration was little more than an expression of nostalgia.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many local school administrators and former coaches enjoyed the local notoriety and culture created by interscholastic athletics.

“Many local school administrators and former coaches enjoyed the local notoriety and culture created by interscholastic athletics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

It burdened them with more responsibilities and created legal loopholes for land confiscation.

“Although it did grant many tribal members new rights, it also burdened them with many more responsibilities (like military service and taxation), and for some it created legal loopholes that made it easier for the federal government or private interests to buy or confiscate tribal lands.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Publicly presented, it could demonstrate the evolutionary ideology that guided federal Indian educational policy.

“Publicly presented, it could demonstrate the evolutionary ideology that guided federal Indian educational policy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This article portrays the event as an almost totally unrepressed outpouring of shockingly passionate expression.

“Unlike the accounts of gentlemanly behavior on the football field and in the stands, this article portrays the event as an almost totally unrepressed outpouring of shockingly passionate expression:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This journalist presents progress as dead and the bygone rituals as exciting and alive.

“This journalist presents progress as dead and the supposedly bygone rituals of Native American life as exciting and alive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

National leaders such as Collier and Ryan opposed this use of sports and favored the promotion of intramural athletics and recreation, which would allow a greater degree of free play and incorporate a larger number of participants.

“national leaders such as Collier and Ryan opposed this use of sports and favored the promotion of intramural athletics and recreation, which would allow a greater degree of free play and incorporate a larger number of participants.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Boarding school equated citizen status with entering society at the bottom rung.

“For both, boarding school equated citizen status for Native Americans with entering society at the bottom rung.”

May combine two claims.

Indian students often complained that racism was the reason they chose boarding schools over public schools in Wisconsin and Minnesota; the intertribal environment attracted students who otherwise had to deal with discrimination at their local schools.

“Indian students often complained that racism was the reason they chose boarding schools over public schools in Wisconsin and Minnesota.The intertribal environment attracted students who otherwise had to deal with discrimination at their local schools”

• cites Child 1993, 64Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Sports became a prominent part of boarding school life during the first decades of the twentieth century in large part because recreation came to be seen as a necessary part of any formal education, and athletics emerged as a dominant form of popular culture in the United States at large.

“Sports became a prominent part of boarding school life during the first decades of the twentieth century in large part because during this historical period, recreation came to be seen as a necessary part of any formal education, and athletics emerged as a dominant form of popular culture in the United States at large.”

May combine two claims.

At Carlisle, sports first became a significant source of good public relations, but the publicity they generated can be read neither as a seamless tale of domination and manipulation nor as a pure expression of Indian identity.

“At Carlisle, sports first became a significant source of good public relations, but the publicity that they generated can be read neither as a seamless tale of domination and manipulation nor as a pure expression of Indian identity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In part, this was because the Great Depression had a devastating impact upon Native American communities.

“In part, this was because the Great Depression had a devastating impact upon Native American communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The passage makes the event seem as if spectators were on the verge of a mass orgasm.

“The passage makes the event seem as if the spectators were on the verge of experiencing a mass orgasm.”

May combine two claims.

Brenda Child notes that high enrollments during this time were a response to the very effort of the federal government to shut them down, and particularly to campaigns to integrate Native American children into public schools.

“Brenda Child notes that in addition, however, the high enrollments during this time were a response to the very effort of the federal government to shut them down, and particularly to campaigns to integrate Native American children into public schools.”

• cites Child 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Unlike the noble savage, these Indians still needed to be tamed.

“Unlike the picturesque noble savage presented by the Indian service and in other popular accounts, these Indians still needed to be tamed.”

May combine two claims.

With the appointment of Will Carson Ryan as director of education in 1930, and John Collier as commissioner of Indian affairs in 1933, the BIA set out to reform and ultimately eliminate the boarding school system, heeding many Meriam Report recommendations.

“With the appointment of Will Carson Ryan as director of education in 1930, and John Collier as commissioner of Indian affairs in 1933, the BIA set out to reform and ultimately to eliminate the boarding school system, heeding many of the Meriam Report's recommendations (Szasz 1977).”

• cites Szasz 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Such moves were made with the well-intentioned motive of ending exploitation of Indian athletes.

“Such moves were made with the wellintentioned motive of ending the exploitation of Indian athletes by overzealous coaches and school administrators.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The recommendation that recreation be part of tuberculosis treatment ran against standard procedure, but there was no reliable way of treating the disease during this period.

“Although the recommendation in this passage runs against standard procedure, it is important to recognize that there was really no reliable way of treating the disease during this period.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This author portrays the powwow as simultaneously terrifying and intensely pleasurable.

“This author portrays the powwow, under the smoke-filtered light of a football stadium at night, as being an experience that was simultaneously terrifying and intensely pleasurable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Boarding schools offered many a form of relief, providing children with such basic necessities as food and shelter.

“Boarding schools offered many a form of relief, providing children with such basic necessities as food and shelter.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Muskogee representation of the war dance is similar to the Kansas City Journal: both make light of it as no longer threatening.

“The Muskogee representation of the war dance is very similar to that provided in the Kansas City Journal: Both make light of it as no longer threatening.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The safety conveyed the impression that an era of Indian resistance was over.

“That they were safe to observe conveyed the impression that an era of Indian resistance was over”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This is far more a reflection of cultural tensions within the dominant society than of anything inherently sexual or exotic in the dances.

“I would argue that this is far more a reflection of cultural tensions within the dominant society than of anything inherently sexual or exotic in the dances themselves.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The dances themselves were not inherently sexual or exotic.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The control Indian men maintained over their passions in football confirmed that an era of real battle had passed.

“The control that Indian men maintained over their passions within a violent and often provocative game like football confirmed for many that an era of real battle had passed”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Carlisle's sports history provides an important context for understanding Native American experiences in boarding schools and the role of athletics within them.

“Carlisle's sports history provides an important context for understanding Native American experiences in boarding schools and the role of athletics within them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Social reformers shared with boarding school promoters a concern with the assimilation of impoverished, non-English-speaking, or nonwhite populations.

“Such social reformers shared with boarding school promoters a concern with the assimilation of impoverished, non-English-speaking, or nonwhite populations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This journalist paints a scene of uncontained emotions.

“This journalist paints a scene of uncontained emotions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

McCloud's stories illustrate the power of cultural and national narratives carried through sports, as well as conflicts and ironies between assimilation and national pride.

“McCloud's stories illustrate the power of the cultural and national narratives that can be carried through sports, as well as the conflicts and ironies that sports evoke between assimilation and national pride.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Such ambivalence might allow cultural critics to understand sports as an important location at boarding schools where Native American identities and experiences gained a voice and where new identities were explored and imagined.

“Such ambivalence might allow cultural critics to understand sports as an important location at boarding schools where Native American identities and experiences gained a voice and where new identities were explored and imagined.”

May combine two claims.

Boarding school sports contained contradictions and often changed between 1890 and 1950.

“These possibilities included the boarding school sports, whose role contained contradictions and often changed between 1890 and 1950.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent scholarship on boarding schools has begun to critically focus upon the 1930s as a crucial time when new possibilities emerged for the creative expression of identity by students at these institutions.

“Recent scholarship on boarding schools for Native Americans has begun to critically focus upon the 1930s as a crucial time when new possibilities emerged for the creative expression of identity by students at these institutions (see Child 1993;Hyer 1990;Lomawaima 1994).”

• cites Child 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hyer 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lomawaima 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This is the irony of the progressive representations that guided coverage of Indian boarding school sports.

“This is the irony of the progressive representations that guided the coverage of Indian boarding school sports.”

May combine two claims.

Sports loyalties can work in the service of prevailing national narratives, and they can also be a powerful expression of alternative narratives and identities for groups not reflected in dominant representations.

“Just as the loyalties that sports create might work in the service of prevailing national narratives, they can also be a powerful expression of alternative narratives and identities for groups who do not find their points of view reflected in dominant representations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

His description of the dances is almost explicitly sexual.

“His description of the dances is almost explicitly sexual.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

War dances could be observed safely and humorously by the largely white readership.

“These war dances, then, could be observed safely and even humorously by the largely white readership of the newspaper.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Anglo political leaders, educators, and clergy left behind much that reveals contradictions surrounding the ways the celebration represented the past, present, and future.

“However, Anglo political leaders, educators, and clergy left behind much that certainly reveals contradictions surrounding the ways that the celebration represented the past, the present, and the future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The conflicts they evoke provide clues to the ways Indians might have found sports important.

“But the conflicts they evoke provide clues to the ways Indians might have found sports at boarding schools important.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This was also true for many young Native Americans who attended boarding school decades before McCloud, particularly during the 1930s.

“This was also true for many young Native Americans who attended boarding school decades before McCloud, and particularly during the tumultuous decade of the 1930s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

By the 1930s the position of boarding school in the lives of Native Americans had changed.

“Meanwhile, by the 1930s the position of boarding school in the lives of Native Americans had also changed.”

May combine two claims.

Student peer groups allowed those attending boarding schools to forge pan-Indian alliances and identities, even though most never lost sight of the specific histories of their own nations and tribes of origin.

“These student peer groups allowed those attending boarding schools to forge pan-Indian alliances and identities, even though most never lost sight of the specific histories of their own nations and tribes of origin.”

May combine two claims.

The spectacle that football allowed before the game made it clear that Haskell was an Indian school, and its football victories were ones by and for Native Americans throughout the United States.

“But the spectacle that football allowed before the game also made it clear that Haskell was an Indian school, and its football victories were ones by and for Native Americans throughout the United States.”

May combine two claims.

Carlisle did not necessarily determine the sports that were played or what they meant to students, to school officials, or to communities around boarding schools.

“Although important, Carlisle did not necessarily determine the sports that were played or what they meant to students, to school officials, or to communities around boarding schools.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This was to provide a comparison between the untamed past and the modern present.

“This was to provide a comparison between the untamed past and the modern present.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Boarding school curricula held fast to Victorian notions of proper gender behavior.

“Boarding school curricula of the first decades of the twentieth century held fast to Victorian notions of proper gender behavior.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

When coupled with a homecoming football game, powwow practices became a sign of acceptance into a pluralistic yet coherent national unity.

“Instead, when coupled with a homecoming football game, they became a sign of acceptance into a pluralistic yet coherent national unity.”

May combine two claims.

It identified Indians not as assimilated beings but as Indians battling and often winning against white foes on a symbolic field of battle.

“In addition, it identified Indians not as assimilated beings but as Indians battling and often winning against white foes on a symbolic field of battle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In combat and victory, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanas and Chicanos, and others have gained immense pride in shared identities rooted in historical experiences of marginalization, discrimination, and disenfranchisement.

“In combat and victory, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanas and Chicanos, and others have gained immense pride in their shared identities rooted in historical experiences of marginalization, discrimination, and disenfranchisement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The powwow was threatening because it evoked repressed desires.

“In this manner the powwow was indeed threatening, not because it might provoke any sort of violent insurrection, but because it evoked repressed desires.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This development was not accepted as positive by all Native peoples.

“This development, however, was not something that all Native peoples accepted as something positive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This progressive vision was an implicit part of representations of the event.

“This progressive vision was an implicit part of representations that characterized other, less explicitly narrative press descriptions of this event.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The newspaper article's account represents the display as anticlimactic compared to the dances.

“Yet the newspaper article's account of the evening represents the display as somewhat anticlimactic compared to the dances that had taken place earlier:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students living in unfamiliar environments and under strict discipline were often under great mental and physical stress, which could make latent cases active.

“In addition, because students were living in unfamiliar environments and under strict forms of discipline, they were often under great mental and physical stress, which could make latent cases active.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Before the 1930s, a great many Native Americans resisted sending their children off to boarding schools, or resisted being sent themselves.

“Before this period, a great many Native Americans resisted sending their children off to boarding schools, or resisted being sent themselves.”

May combine two claims.

Although boarding schools were designed to promote assimilation, they also created conditions that made possible new identities to be formed around rebellious subcultures, hybrid identities derived from region, tribe, or campus culture.

“although the schools were designed to promote assimilation, they also created conditions that made possible new identities to be formed around rebellious subcultures, hybrid identities derived from region, tribe, or campus culture.”

• cites Brenda ChildNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tsianina LomawaimaNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sally HyerNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ryan and Collier were critical of the sports programs that had developed at boarding schools.

“Ryan and Collier were critical of the sports programs that had developed at boarding schools.”