The DOI matches its Crossref record; 78 of the 78 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Toward a Framework for Levels of Robot Autonomy in Human-Robot Interaction
Open accessAbstract
A critical construct related to human-robot interaction (HRI) is autonomy, which varies widely across robot platforms. Levels of robot autonomy (LORA), ranging from teleoperation to fully autonomous systems, influence the way in which humans and robots may interact with one another. Thus, there is a need to understand HRI by identifying variables that influence - and are influenced by - robot autonomy. Our overarching goal is to develop a framework for levels of robot autonomy in HRI. To reach this goal, the framework draws links between HRI and human-automation interaction, a field with a long history of studying and understanding human-related variables. The construct of autonomy is reviewed and redefined within the context of HRI. Additionally, the framework proposes a process for determining a robot's autonomy level, by categorizing autonomy along a 10-point taxonomy. The framework is intended to be treated as guidelines to determine autonomy, categorize the LORA along a qualitative taxonomy, and consider which HRI variables (e.g., acceptance, situation awareness, reliability) may be influenced by the LORA.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology
Davis, F. D. (1989) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/249008 · Cited by 68,483
Artificial intelligence: a modern approach
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-1577 · Cited by 21,974
Erikson, E. H. (2026) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.18614668 · Cited by 11,235
Toward a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems
Endsley, M. R. (1995) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872095779049543 · Cited by 8,875
Intelligent agents: theory and practice
Wooldridge, M., & Jennings, N. R. (1995) · The Knowledge Engineering Review · doi:10.1017/s0269888900008122 · Cited by 6,810
Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance
Lee, J. D., & See, K. A. (2004) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/hfes.46.1.50_30392 · Cited by 6,605 · cited 1×
“A number of models and theories related to trust in automation (Cohen, Parasuraman, & Freeman, 1998; Dzindolet et al., 2003; Lee & See, 2004; Madhavan & Wiegmann, 2007) and preliminary frameworks of trust in HRI have been proposed (Desai, Stubbs, Steinfeld, & Yanco, 2009; Hancock, Billings, &…”
BackgroundHumans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse
Parasuraman, R., & Riley, V. (1997) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872097778543886 · Cited by 4,554
A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation
Parasuraman, R., Sheridan, T. B., & Wickens, C. D. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans · doi:10.1109/3468.844354 · Cited by 4,195 · cited 4×
“Third, different from the Parasuraman et al. (2000) model, we highlight specific HRI variables that are likely to be influenced by robot autonomy.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMachines and Mindlessness: Social Responses to Computers
Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00153 · Cited by 4,022
A survey of socially interactive robots
Fong, T., Nourbakhsh, I., & Dautenhahn, K. (2003) · Robotics and Autonomous Systems · doi:10.1016/s0921-8890(02)00372-x · Cited by 3,162
Cited by
Transforming the Customer Experience through New Technologies
Hoyer, W. D., Kroschke, M., Schmitt, B., Kraume, K., & Shankar, V. (2020) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2020.04.001 · Cited by 1,049
Trust in AI: progress, challenges, and future directions
Afroogh, S., Akbari, A., Malone, E., Kargar, M., & Alambeigi, H. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04044-8 · Cited by 507
Zizic, M. C., Mladineo, M., Gjeldum, N., & Celent, L. (2022) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en15145221 · Cited by 420
Acceptance of artificial intelligence among pre-service teachers: A multigroup analysis
Zhang, C., Schießl, J., Plößl, L., Hofmann, F., & Gläser-Zikuda, M. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-023-00420-7 · Cited by 413
Customer-robot interactions: Understanding customer experience with service robots
Huang, D., Chen, Q., Huang, J., Kong, S., & Li, Z. (2021) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.103078 · Cited by 257
Metadata
- Authors
- Beer, J. M., Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. A.
- Venue
- Journal of Human-Robot Interaction
- Publisher
- Journal of Human-Robot Interaction
- Published
- 2014-06-01
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 74
- ISSN
- 2163-0364 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2109135966
- Cited by
- 629
- References
- 78
- FWCI
- 19.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Toward a Framework for Levels of Robot Autonomy in Human-Robot Interaction. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.5898/jhri.3.2.beer
- The paper
- Beer, J. M., Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. A. (2014). Toward a Framework for Levels of Robot Autonomy in Human-Robot Interaction. Journal of Human-Robot Interaction. https://doi.org/10.5898/jhri.3.2.beer
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.