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Role of Lifestyle and Aging on the Longitudinal Change in Cardiorespiratory Fitness
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in adults decreases with age and is influenced by lifestyle. Low CRF is associated with risk of diseases and the ability of older persons to function independently. We defined the longitudinal rate of CRF decline with aging and the association of aging and lifestyle with CRF. METHODS: We studied a cohort of 3429 women and 16 889 men, aged 20 to 96 years, from the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study who completed 2 to 33 health examinations from 1974 to 2006. The lifestyle variables were body mass index, self-reported aerobic exercise, and smoking behavior. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured by a maximal Balke treadmill exercise test. RESULTS: Linear mixed models regression analysis stratified by sex showed that the decline in CRF with age was not linear. After 45 years of age, CRF declined at an accelerated rate. For each unit of increase in body mass index, the CRF of women declined 0.20 metabolic equivalents (METs) (95% confidence interval, -0.21 to -0.19); that of men, 0.32 METs (-0.33 to -0.20). Current smokers of both sexes also had lower CRF (-0.29 METs [95% confidence interval, -0.40 to -0.19] for women and -0.41 METS [-0.44 to -0.38] for men). Cardiorespiratory fitness was positively associated with self-reported physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiorespiratory fitness in men and women declines at a nonlinear rate that accelerates after 45 years of age. Maintaining a low BMI, being physically active, and not smoking are associated with higher CRF across the adult life span.
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“Based on longitudinal35 36 and cross sectional studies,37 we expected an age dependent decline in peak oxygen uptake of at least 3.5 mL/kg/min over the five year period.”
From Effect of exercise training for five years on all cause mortality in older adults—the Generation 100 study: randomised controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [36]
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“PA improves cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular tone(33,34) and prevents the decline in functional capacity that is characteristic of advancing age.(30) Moreover, regular training would modulate the tissular antioxidant profile by decreasing basal oxidative damage and increasing resistance to oxidative stress.”
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BackgroundChange in Physical Activity after a Diabetes Diagnosis
Schneider, K. L., Andrews, C., Hovey, K. M., Seguin‐Fowler, R. A., Manini, T. M., LaMonte, M. J., Margolis, K. L., Waring, M. E., Ning, Y., Sims, S. T., et al. (2013) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3182a33010 · Cited by 45
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Self-citationImpact of obesity and Down syndrome on peak heart rate and aerobic capacity in youth and adults
Wee, S. O., Pitetti, K. H., Goulopoulou, S., Collier, S. R., Guerra-Balic, M., & Baynard, T. (2014) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.002 · Cited by 42
The Impact of Cardiorespiratory Fitness Levels on the Risk of Developing Atherogenic Dyslipidemia
Breneman, C. B., Polinski, K. J., Sarzynski, M. A., Lavie, C. J., Kokkinos, P. F., Ahmed, A., & Sui, X. (2016) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.05.017 · Cited by 36
Self-citationOmbrellaro, K. J., Perumal, N., Zeiher, J., Hoebel, J., Ittermann, T., Ewert, R., Dörr, M., Keil, T. O. P., Mensink, G., & Finger, J. D. (2018) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-018-0137-0 · Cited by 42
Park, S., Kwak, Y., Harveson, A. T., Weavil, J. C., & Seo, K. E. (2015) · Korean Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.4196/kjpp.2015.19.3.191 · Cited by 36
“This is worth noting as aging is re-lated to a decline in aerobic fitness [12].”
Glass, O., Liu, D., Bechard, E. M., Guy, C. D., Pendergast, J., Diehl, A. M., & Abdelmalek, M. F. (2021) · Hepatology Communications · doi:10.1002/hep4.1808 · Cited by 36
Prince, S. A., Dempsey, P. C., Reed, J. L., Rubín, L., Saunders, T. J., Ta, J., Tomkinson, G. R., Merucci, K., & Lang, J. J. (2024) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01986-y · Cited by 38
“CR F m e a [ 93 , 9 4 , 97 , 99 , 102 ] 3 / 5 s t ud i e s ( on l y 1 c on t r o ll e d f o r P A ) ob s e r v e d t h a t r e du ce d s c r ee n ti m e o r t o t a l S B w a s no t s i gn i fi ca n tl y a ss o c i a t e d w it h CR F [ 94 , 99 , 102 ] .”
Freese, E. C., Gist, N. H., Acitelli, R. M., Mcconnell, W. J., Beck, C., Hausman, D. B., Murrow, J. R., Cureton, K. J., & Evans, E. M. (2015) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00380.2014 · Cited by 37
“Although the nature of SIT is an “all-out” sprint, women who are overweight or obese may have reduced exercise capacity due to reduced muscle mass (24) and impaired aerobic capacity (25) associated with aging, leading to reduced absolute physiological strain induced during SIT.”
BackgroundLactate Threshold as a Measure of Aerobic Metabolism in Resistance Exercise
Domínguez, R., Maté‐Muñoz, J. L., Serra‐Payá, N., & Garnacho‐Castaño, M. V. (2017) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-0043-122740 · Cited by 34
Qiu, S., Cai, X., Sun, Z., Wu, T., & Schümann, U. (2021) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.06.904 · Cited by 34
Considerations for physical employment standards in the aging workforce
Flower, D., Tipton, M., & Milligan, G. S. (2019) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-192962 · Cited by 34
“Thus, maintaining a low body mass index (BMI), being physically active and not smoking are associated with higher cardiorespiratory fitness across the adult life span [36].”
Soroush, A., Ananian, C. D., Ainsworth, B. E., Belyea, M. J., Poortvliet, E., Swan, P. D., Walker, J. R., & Yngve, A. (2013) · Asian Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.5812/asjsm.34492 · Cited by 33
“Furthermore, the decline in CRF was greater for men than for women, similar to a previous study that reported reduction in CRF in men and women after 45 years at an accelerated rate and a reduction for males that was greater than that for females ([15]).”
BackgroundResultBas, G., Loisate, S., Hudon, S. F., Woods, K., Hayden, E. J., Pu, X., Beard, R. S., Oxford, J. T., & Uzer, G. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66055-0 · Cited by 30
Nonexercise Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Mortality in Older Adults
Martínez‐Gómez, D., Guallar‐Castillón, P., Hallal, P. C., López‐García, E., & Rodríguez‐Artalejo, F. (2014) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000000435 · Cited by 31
“This could be due to the fact that CRF declines nonlinearly with age; thus, nonexercise algorithms should account for age-related changes in CRF (13).”
BackgroundSchütz, N., Saner, H. E., Rudin, B., Botros, A., Pais, B., Santschi, V., Buluschek, P., Gática-Pérez, D., Urwyler, P., Marchal–Crespo, L., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-45733-8 · Cited by 31
Skeletal Muscle Mass Is Linked to Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Youth
Wittekind, S. G., Powell, A. W., Opotowsky, A. R., Mays, W. A., Knecht, S. K., Rivin, G., & Chin, C. C. (2020) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002424 · Cited by 30
“CRF normally increases during development from childhood through puberty (11,12), then slowly declines beginning in the fourth decade of life (13,14), with males generally having higher peak V̇O2 at any given age.”
BackgroundAre multimorbidity patterns associated with fear of falling in community-dwelling older adults?
Canever, J. B., Moreira, B. D. S., Danielewicz, A. L., & de Avelar, N. C. P. (2022) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-022-02889-9 · Cited by 33
“This finding may be associated with the fact that cardiorespiratory conditioning can be reduced in older adults due to the senescence process and aggravated by the sedentary lifestyle adopted by many older adults [61].”
BackgroundAllen, T. D., Henderson, T. G., Mancini, V. S., & French, K. A. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0681-6 · Cited by 33
Teixeira, J., Monteiro, L., Silvestre, R., Beckert, J., & Massuça, L. M. (2019) · Biology of Sport · doi:10.5114/biolsport.2019.83506 · Cited by 30
“However, a regular training programme proved to be ef - fective in slowing down age-related deterioration [14,33] (reducing it as much as 5% per decade [14]), with an impact on ODT performance.”
BackgroundGiacobbi, P. R., Dreisbach, K. A., Zautra, N. T., Anand, P., & García, F. S. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.03.004 · Cited by 33
Abt, J. P., Perlsweig, K. A., Nagai, T., Sell, T. C., Wirt, M. D., & Lephart, S. M. (2016) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-15-00036 · Cited by 29
Effects of Physical Training and Fitness on Running Injuries in Physically Active Young Men
Grier, T., Canham-Chervak, M., Anderson, M. K., Bushman, T. T., & Jones, B. H. (2016) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001487 · Cited by 29
“Previous studies investigating age and aerobic fitness have shown that aerobic fitness decreases with age (18).”
BackgroundWhich Cutoffs for Secondary V˙O2max Criteria Are Robust to Diurnal Variations?
Knaier, R., Niemeyer, M., Wagner, J., Infanger, D., Hinrichs, T., Klenk, C., Frutig, S., Cajochen, C., & Schmidt‐Trucksäss, A. (2018) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001869 · Cited by 28
Drain, J. R., & Reilly, T. J. (2019) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-192963 · Cited by 28
Hyvärinen, M., Sipilä, S., Kulmala, J., Hakonen, H., Tammelin, T., Kujala, U. M., Kovanen, V., & Laakkonen, E. K. (2019) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2019-0093 · Cited by 27
Tavoian, D., Russ, D. W., Consitt, L. A., & Clark, B. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.00799 · Cited by 26
Physical activity in later life and risk of dementia: Findings from a population-based cohort study
Feter, N., Mielke, G. I., Leite, J. S., Brown, W. J., Coombes, J. S., & Rombaldi, A. J. (2020) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2020.111145 · Cited by 29
Gender Differences in Recreational Sports Participation among Taiwanese Adults
Tsai, L.-T., Lo, F.-E., Yang, C.-C., Keller, J. J., & Lyu, S.-Y. (2015) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph120100829 · Cited by 28
“Jackson, Sui, Hébert, Church and Blair [2] and Sattelmair, Pertman and Forman [3] also reported that participation in recreational sports can reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases.”
BackgroundSui, X., Sarzynski, M. A., Lee, D.-C., Lavie, C. J., Zhang, J., Kokkinos, P. F., Payne, J. P. W., & Blair, S. N. (2016) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.11.017 · Cited by 27
Self-citationSterling, M. R., Ferranti, E. P., Green, B. B., Moise, N., Foraker, R., Nam, S., Juraschek, S. P., Anderson, C. A. M., St. Laurent, P., Sussman, J., et al. (2024) · Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes · doi:10.1161/hcq.0000000000000134 · Cited by 29
Change in Maximal Exercise Capacity Is Associated With Survival in Men and Women
Brawner, C. A., Al-Mallah, M. H., Ehrman, J. K., Qureshi, W., Blaha, M. J., & Keteyian, S. J. (2017) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.12.016 · Cited by 27
“n March 2017 year)(21,22) and a 2-MET difference between men and women.(23,24) Using these adjusted METs, patients were categorized into (1) low fitness (<8 METs), (2) intermediate fitness (8 to <11 METs), and (3) high fitness ( 11 METs).”
MethodCross-validation of a non-exercise measure for cardiorespiratory fitness in Singaporean adults
Sloan, R. A., Haaland, B. A., Leung, C., Padmanabhan, U., Koh, H. E., & Zee, A. (2013) · Singapore Medical Journal · doi:10.11622/smedj.2013186 · Cited by 25
“5% with every decade of age, with the decrease becoming more significantly accelerated in the elderly.(16) Therefore, we limited our study to participants aged 18–65 years.”
BackgroundMcCormack, G. R., Frehlich, L., Blackstaffe, A., Turin, T. C., & Doyle–Baker, P. K. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17041131 · Cited by 25
“Higher MST is associated with a reduced risk of all‐cause mortality [14–16], weight gain [17], adverse cardiovascular‐related outcomes [11,15,18], metabolic syndrome [7,19], injury [20], and better self‐reported health [21] and quality of life [22].”
BackgroundHeart Rate Performance Curve Is Dependent on Age, Sex, and Performance
Birnbaumer, P., Traninger, H., Borenich, A., Falgenhauer, M., Modre‐Osprian, R., Harpf, H. H., & Hofmann, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00098 · Cited by 25
“” Further, maximum ergometer power output was constant up to 50 years which is in line with earlier findings (21), but different to guideline values, which present a continuous decrease with age (22, 35).”
BackgroundResultExtreme Temperature and Mortality by Educational Attainment in Spain, 2012–2018
Keivabu, R. C. (2022) · European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie · doi:10.1007/s10680-022-09641-4 · Cited by 29
“Ageing is one of the main factors determining a weakened cardiorespiratory fitness (Jackson et al., 2009; Strait & Lakatta, 2012).”
BackgroundAssociation between dietary intake of micronutrients and cardiorespiratory fitness in Japanese men
Cao, Z., Sasaki, A., Oh, T., Miyatake, N., Tsushita, K., Higuchi, M., Sasaki, S., & Tabata, I. (2012) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2012.16 · Cited by 25
Carlsen, T., Salvesen, Ø. O., Sui, X., Lavie, C. J., Blair, S. N., Wisløff, U., & Ernstsen, L. (2018) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2018.01.015 · Cited by 25
Self-citationBMI and Mortality among Adults with Incident Type 2 Diabetes
Tobias, D., Pan, A., & Hu, F. B. (2014) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmc1401876 · Cited by 25
Metadata
- Authors
- Jackson, A. S., Sui, X., Hébert, J. R., Church, T. S., & Blair, S. N.
- Affiliations
- University of Houston (US)
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center (US)
- Venue
- Archives of Internal Medicine
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2009-10-26
- Volume
- 169
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 1781-7
- ISSN
- 0003-9926 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3379873
- OpenAlex
- W2145173489
- Cited by
- 329
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 33.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Archives of Internal Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006945, AG06945, R01AG006945)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL62508, R01HL062508)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Performance
- Keywords
- cardiorespiratory fitness, aging, lifestyle factors, body mass index, physical activity, smoking, aerobic exercise, sex differences, Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study, treadmill exercise testing
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Exercise Test, Female, Humans, Life Style, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Oxygen Consumption, Physical Fitness, Sex Factors, Smoking, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Linear Models
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