Cited by 5,458Personality Traits and PsychologyPersonality Disorders and PsychopathologyNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior

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A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character

Cloninger, C. Robert·1993·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008

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Abstract

In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.

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Scott, L. N., Levy, K. N., & Pincus, A. L. (2009) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2009.23.3.258 · Cited by 93
Work addiction and personality: A meta-analytic study
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“Regarding the aforementioned Temperament and Character Model (Cloninger et al., 1993), the studies examining the associations between these dimensions and work addiction are more limited (Di Nicola et al.”
Background
The genetic structure of personality and learning: a phylogenetic model
Cloninger, C. R. (1994) · Clinical Genetics · doi:10.1111/j.1399-0004.1994.tb04214.x · Cited by 92
Self-citation
Influence of androgen receptor repeat polymorphisms on personality traits in men
Westberg, L., Henningsson, S., Landén, M., Annerbrink, K., Melke, J., Nilsson, S., Rosmond, R., Holm, G., Anckarsäter, H. S., & Eriksson, E. (2009) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1139/jpn.0927 · Cited by 92
Psychometric characteristic of the Italian version of the Temperament and Character Inventory—Revised, personality, psychopathology, and attachment styles
Martinotti, G., Mandelli, L., Nicola, M. D., Serretti, A., Fossati, A., Borroni, S., Cloninger, C. R., & Janiri, L. (2008) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.11.002 · Cited by 92
Self-citation
Application of the seven-factor model of personality to early childhood
Constantino, J. N., Cloninger, C. R., Clarke, A. R., Hashemi, B., & Przybeck, T. R. (2002) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-1781(02)00008-2 · Cited by 92
Self-citation
Temperament and character traits in major depressive disorder: influence of mood state and recurrence of episodes
Nery, F. G., Hatch, J. P., Nicoletti, M., Monkul, E. S., Najt, P., Matsuo, K., Cloninger, C. R., & Soares, J. C. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20478 · Cited by 91
Self-citation
Psychometric properties of the Lebanese–Arabic TEMPS-A: A national epidemiologic study
Karam, E. G., Mneimneh, Z., Salamoun, M., Akiskal, K. K., & Akiskal, H. S. (2005) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.02.010 · Cited by 91
Interactions between child and parent temperament and child behavior problems
Rettew, D. C., Stanger, C., McKee, L. G., Doyle, A., & Hudziak, J. J. (2006) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.12.008 · Cited by 91
Temperament–creativity relationships in mood disorder patients, healthy controls and highly creative individuals
Strong, C. M., Nowakowska, C., Santosa, C. M., Wang, P. W., KRAEMER, H. C., & Ketter, T. A. (2006) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.10.015 · Cited by 91
Behavioral and cognitive profile of mice with high and low exploratory phenotypes
Kazlauckas, V., Schuh, J. F., Dall'Igna, O. P. P., Pereira, G. S., Bonan, C. D., & Lara, D. R. (2005) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.03.021 · Cited by 91
Neuroticism and polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene
Deary, I. J., Battersby, S., Whiteman, M., CONNOR, J. M., Fowkes, F. G. R., & Harmar, A. J. (1999) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291798007557 · Cited by 91
Disentangling the molecular genetic basis of personality: From monoamines to neuropeptides
Montag, C., & Reuter, M. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.04.006 · Cited by 93
Adult temperament and childbearing over the life course
Jokela, M. M., Hintsa, T., Hintsanen, M., & Keltikangas‐Järvinen, L. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.749 · Cited by 90
Treatment of love addiction: Current status and perspectives
Sanches, M., & John, V. P. (2018) · The European Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ejpsy.2018.07.002 · Cited by 95
Bipolar disorder. III: Harm avoidance a risk factor for suicide attempts
Engström, C., Brändström, S., Sigvardsson, S., Cloninger, C. R., & Nylander, P. (2004) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2004.00101.x · Cited by 90
Self-citation
Spirituality and religiosity as cross-cultural aspects of human experience.
Dy-Liacco, G. S., Piedmont, R. L., Murray‐Swank, N. A., Rodgerson, T. E., & Sherman, M. F. (2009) · Psychology of Religion and Spirituality · doi:10.1037/a0014937 · Cited by 91
A general quantitative theory of personality development: Fundamentals of a self-organizing psychobiological complex
Svrakic, N. M., Švrakić, D. M., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400007070 · Cited by 90
Self-citation
Relationship Between Specialty Choice and Medical Student Temperament and Character Assessed With Cloninger Inventory
Vaidya, N. A., Sierles, F. S., Raida, M. D., Fakhoury, F. J., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (2004) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15328015tlm1602_6 · Cited by 90
Self-citation
Cluster B Personality Disorders are Associated with Allelic Variation of Monoamine Oxidase A Activity
Jacob, C., Müller, J., Schmidt, M., Hohenberger, K., Gutknecht, L., Reif, A., Schmidtke, A., Mößner, R., & Lesch, K. (2005) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300737 · Cited by 90
A meta-analysis of temperament and character dimensions in patients with mood disorders: Comparison to healthy controls and unaffected siblings
Zaninotto, L., Solmi, M., Toffanin, T., Veronese, N., Cloninger, C. R., & Correll, C. U. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.077 · Cited by 90
“Further, age was confirmed to have a negative effect on NS and a positive effect on HA and C, respectively (Brändström et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2002, 2013; Cloninger, 1994a; Cloninger et al., 1993; Mikolajczyk et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation

Authors: Cloninger, C. R.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
Corresponding author: Cloninger, C. Robert
ORCID: Cloninger, C. Robert
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 1993-12-01
Volume: 50
Issue: 12
Pages: 975
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
OpenAlex: W1989844817
Cited by: 5,458
References: 81
Citations by year: 2026: 86 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 152 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 195 · 2020: 314 · 2019: 210 · 2018: 187 · 2017: 219 · 2016: 246 · 2015: 272 · 2014: 244 · 2013: 283 · 2012: 274
FWCI: 57.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01aa007982-05, 5r01aa008028-05)
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA07982, AA08028)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 31302)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Keywords: temperament, character, personality structure, personality development, Temperament and Character Inventory, self-concept, self-direction, cooperativeness, self-transcendence, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, heritability, psychobiological model, personality assessment
MeSH terms: Character, Humans, Models, Biological, Models, Psychological, Personality Assessment, Personality Disorders, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Temperament, Reproducibility of Results

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A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character

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