Cited by 5,458Personality Traits and PsychologyPersonality Disorders and PsychopathologyNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior

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A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character

Cloninger, C. Robert·1993·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008

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Abstract

In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.

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“stress reactivity or proneness to general anxiety (Cloninger and Svrakic, 1993)), causing a broad range of negative moods and cognitions, such as guilt, hostility, and self-dissatisfaction (Clark et al.”
BackgroundResult

Authors: Cloninger, C. R.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
Corresponding author: Cloninger, C. Robert
ORCID: Cloninger, C. Robert
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 1993-12-01
Volume: 50
Issue: 12
Pages: 975
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
OpenAlex: W1989844817
Cited by: 5,458
References: 81
Citations by year: 2026: 86 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 152 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 195 · 2020: 314 · 2019: 210 · 2018: 187 · 2017: 219 · 2016: 246 · 2015: 272 · 2014: 244 · 2013: 283 · 2012: 274
FWCI: 57.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01aa007982-05, 5r01aa008028-05)
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA07982, AA08028)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 31302)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Keywords: temperament, character, personality structure, personality development, Temperament and Character Inventory, self-concept, self-direction, cooperativeness, self-transcendence, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, heritability, psychobiological model, personality assessment
MeSH terms: Character, Humans, Models, Biological, Models, Psychological, Personality Assessment, Personality Disorders, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Temperament, Reproducibility of Results

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A Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character

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