Trends in Public Stigma of Mental Illness in the US, 1996-2018
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Importance: Stigma, the prejudice and discrimination attached to mental illness, has been persistent, interfering with help-seeking, recovery, treatment resources, workforce development, and societal productivity in individuals with mental illness. However, studies assessing changes in public perceptions of mental illness have been limited. Objective: To evaluate the nature, direction, and magnitude of population-based changes in US mental illness stigma over 22 years. Design, Setting, and Participants: This survey study used data collected from the US National Stigma Studies, face-to-face interviews conducted as 1996, 2006, and 2018 General Social Survey modules of community-dwelling adults, based on nationally representative, multistage sampling techniques. Individuals aged 18 years or older, including Spanish-speaking respondents, living in noninstitutionalized settings were interviewed in 1996 (n = 1438), 2006 (n = 1520), and 2018 (n = 1171). The present study was conducted from July 2019 to January 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: Respondents reacted to 1 of 3 vignettes (schizophrenia, depression, alcohol dependence) meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria or a control case (daily troubles). Measures included beliefs about underlying causes (attributions), perceptions of likely violence (danger to others), and rejection (desire for social distance). Results: Of the 4129 individuals interviewed in the surveys, 2255 were women (54.6%); mean (SD) age was 44.6 (16.9) years. In the earlier period (1996-2006), respondents endorsing scientific attributions (eg, genetics) for schizophrenia (11.8%), depression (13.0%), and alcohol dependence (10.9%) increased. In the later period (2006-2018), the desire for social distance decreased for depression in work (18.1%), socializing (16.7%), friendship (9.7%), family marriage (14.3%), and group home (10.4%). Inconsistent, sometimes regressive change was observed, particularly regarding dangerousness for schizophrenia (1996-2018: 15.7% increase, P = .001) and bad character for alcohol dependence (1996-2018: 18.2% increase, P = .001). Subgroup differences, defined by race and ethnicity, sex, and educational level, were few and inconsistent. Change appeared to be consistent with age and generational shifts among 2 birth cohorts (1937-1946 and 1987-2000). Conclusions and Relevance: To date, this survey study found the first evidence of significant decreases in public stigma toward depression. The findings of this study suggest that individuals' age was a conservatizing factor whereas being in the pre-World War II or millennial birth cohorts was a progressive factor. However, stagnant stigma levels for other disorders and increasing public perceptions of likely violence among persons with schizophrenia call for rethinking stigma and retooling reduction strategies to increase service use, improve treatment resources, and advance population health.
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The stigma experiment was adapted from Pescosolido et al. [109].
“To assess whether LLMs show stigma, we conducted an experiment adapted from Pescosolido et al. [109] (cf. [136]).”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [109]
The humans in the original study [109] were drawn from the general population and were not therapists.
“Nonetheless, recall that the humans in the original study [109] were drawn from the general population and were not therapists.”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [109]
gpt-4o exhibits less stigma than humans in cases of depression but similar amounts of stigma in cases of alcohol dependence and schizophrenia.
“Furthermore, gpt-4o exhibits less stigma than humans in cases of depression but similar amounts of stigma in cases of alcohol dependence and schizophrenia.”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [109]
The humans show similar stigma toward the control case, while the models tested clearly do not.
“Notably, the humans show similar stigma toward the control case while the models we tested clearly do not.”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [109]
In 2018, the n=1171 U.S. respondents from Pescosolido et al. [109] show relatively similar amounts of stigma across conditions, with less stigma toward alcohol dependence and schizophrenia than toward the control and depression cases.
“The n=1171 U.S. respondents in 2018 show relatively similar amounts of stigma across conditions, with less stigma shown toward alcohol dependence and schizophrenia than to the control and depression cases.”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [109]
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- Authors
- Pescosolido, B. A., Halpern-Manners, A., Luo, L., & Perry, B.
- Affiliations
- Indiana University Bloomington (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pescosolido, Bernice A.
- Venue
- JAMA Network Open
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2021-12-21
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e2140202
- ISSN
- 2574-3805 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8693212
- OpenAlex
- W4200386814
- Cited by
- 434
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 111 · 2025: 112 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 82 · 2022: 27
- FWCI
- 51.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JAMA Network Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- public stigma, mental health stigma, schizophrenia, depression, alcoholism, social distance, perceived dangerousness, causal attribution, help-seeking, help-seeking intentions, help-seeking barriers, help-seeking facilitators
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Alcoholism, Mental Disorders, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Public Opinion, Surveys and Questionnaires, Schizophrenia, United States, Social Stigma
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