Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization

Abstract

Preface to Third Edition. 1 Resistivity. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Two-Point Versus Four-Point Probe. 1.3 Wafer Mapping. 1.4 Resistivity Profiling. 1.5 Contactless Methods. 1.6 Conductivity Type. 1.7 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 1.1 Resistivity as a Function of Doping Density. Appendix 1.2 Intrinsic Carrier Density. References. Problems. Review Questions. 2 Carrier and Doping Density. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Capacitance-Voltage (C-V). 2.3 Current-Voltage (I-V). 2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions. 2.5 Hall Effect. 2.6 Optical Techniques. 2.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). 2.8 Rutherford Backscattering (RBS). 2.9 Lateral Profiling. 2.10 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 2.1 Parallel or Series Connection? Appendix 2.2 Circuit Conversion. References. Problems. Review Questions. 3 Contact Resistance and Schottky Barriers. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contacts. 3.3 Contact Resistance. 3.4 Measurement Techniques. 3.5 Schottky Barrier Height. 3.6 Comparison of Methods. 3.7 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 3.1 Effect of Parasitic Resistance. Appendix 3.2 Alloys for Contacts to Semiconductors. References. Problems. Review Questions. 4 Series Resistance, Channel Length and Width, and Threshold Voltage. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 PN Junction Diodes. 4.3 Schottky Barrier Diodes. 4.4 Solar Cells. 4.5 Bipolar Junction Transistors. 4.6 MOSFETS. 4.7 MESFETS and MODFETS. 4.8 Threshold Voltage. 4.9 Pseudo MOSFET. 4.10 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 4.1 Schottky Diode Current-Voltage Equation. References. Problems. Review Questions. 5 Defects. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Generation-Recombination Statistics. 5.3 Capacitance Measurements. 5.4 Current Measurements. 5.5 Charge Measurements. 5.6 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS). 5.7 Thermally Stimulated Capacitance and Current. 5.8 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS). 5.9 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 5.1 Activation Energy and Capture Cross-Section. Appendix 5.2 Time Constant Extraction. Appendix 5.3 Si and GaAs Data. References. Problems. Review Questions. 6 Oxide and Interface Trapped Charges, Oxide Thickness. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Fixed, Oxide Trapped, and Mobile Oxide Charge. 6.3 Interface Trapped Charge. 6.4 Oxide Thickness. 6.5 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 6.1 Capacitance Measurement Techniques. Appendix 6.2 Effect of Chuck Capacitance and Leakage Current. References. Problems. Review Questions. 7 Carrier Lifetimes. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Recombination Lifetime/Surface Recombination Velocity. 7.3 Generation Lifetime/Surface Generation Velocity. 7.4 Recombination Lifetime-Optical Measurements. 7.5 Recombination Lifetime-Electrical Measurements. 7.6 Generation Lifetime-Electrical Measurements. 7.7 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 7.1 Optical Excitation. Appendix 7.2 Electrical Excitation. References. Problems. Review Questions. 8 Mobility. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Conductivity Mobility. 8.3 Hall Effect and Mobility. 8.4 Magnetoresistance Mobility. 8.5 Time-of-Flight Drift Mobility. 8.6 MOSFET Mobility. 8.7 Contactless Mobility. 8.8 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 8.1 Semiconductor Bulk Mobilities. Appendix 8.2 Semiconductor Surface Mobilities. Appendix 8.3 Effect of Channel Frequency Response. Appendix 8.4 Effect of Interface Trapped Charge. References. Problems. Review Questions. 9 Charge-based and Probe Characterization. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Background. 9.3 Surface Charging. 9.4 The Kelvin Probe. 9.5 Applications. 9.6 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM). 9.7 Strengths and Weaknesses. References. Problems. Review Questions. 10 Optical Characterization. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Optical Microscopy. 10.3 Ellipsometry. 10.4 Transmission. 10.5 Reflection. 10.6 Light Scattering. 10.7 Modulation Spectroscopy. 10.8 Line Width. 10.9 Photoluminescence (PL). 10.10 Raman Spectroscopy. 10.11 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 10.1 Transmission Equations. Appendix 10.2 Absorption Coefficients and Refractive Indices for Selected Semiconductors. References. Problems. Review Questions. 11 Chemical and Physical Characterization. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Electron Beam Techniques. 11.3 Ion Beam Techniques. 11.4 X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Techniques. 11.5 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 11.1 Selected Features of Some Analytical Techniques. References. Problems. Review Questions. 12 Reliability and Failure Analysis. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Failure Times and Acceleration Factors. 12.3 Distribution Functions. 12.4 Reliability Concerns. 12.5 Failure Analysis Characterization Techniques. 12.6 Strengths and Weaknesses. Appendix 12.1 Gate Currents. References. Problems. Review Questions. Appendix 1 List of Symbols. Appendix 2 Abbreviations and Acronyms. Index.