Cited by 366Meta-analysis and systematic reviewsStatistical Methods in EpidemiologyStatistical Methods in Clinical Trials

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Interpreting Results and Drawing Conclusions

Schünemann, Holger J, Oxman, Andrew D, Vist, Gunn E, Higgins, Julian PT, Deeks, Jonathan J, Glasziou, Paul, Guyatt, Gordon H·2008·Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions

DOI 10.1002/9780470712184.ch12

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Abstract

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Assessing the quality of a body of evidence Issues in applicability Interpreting results of statistical analyses Interpreting results from dichotomous outcomes (including numbers needed to treat) Interpreting results from continuous outcomes (including standardized mean differences) Drawing conclusions Chapter information References

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Items 101–200 of 366

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Multidisciplinary care for Guillain-Barré syndrome
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Zuclopenthixol acetate for acute schizophrenia and similar serious mental illnesses
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Yoga versus standard care for schizophrenia
Broderick, J. M., Knowles, A., Chadwick, J., & Vancampfort, D. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010554.pub2 · Cited by 55
Virtual reality for treatment compliance for people with serious mental illness
Valimaki, M. A., Hätönen, H. M., Lahti, M., Kurki, M., Hottinen, A., Metsäranta, K., Riihimäki, T., & Adams, C. E. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009928.pub2 · Cited by 49
Radioisotopes for metastatic bone pain
Figuls, M. R. I., Martínez‐Zapata, M. J., Scott-Brown, M., & Alonso‐Coello, P. (2011) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003347.pub2 · Cited by 50
Retracted
General physical health advice for people with serious mental illness
Tosh, G. E., Clifton, A., Xia, J., & White, M. M. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008567.pub3 · Cited by 51
A systematic mixed-methods review of interventions, outcomes and experiences for midwives and student midwives in work-related psychological distress
Pezaro, S., Clyne, W., & Fulton, E. A. (2017) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2017.04.003 · Cited by 51
Perphenazine for schizophrenia
Hartung, B., Sampson, S. J., & Leucht, S. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003443.pub3 · Cited by 49
Psychological Group-Treatments of Social Anxiety Disorder: A Meta-Analysis
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Injection therapies for plantar fasciopathy (‘plantar fasciitis’): a systematic review and network meta-analysis of 22 randomised controlled trials
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Smoking cessation advice for people with serious mental illness
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Antipsychotic drug treatment for elderly people with late-onset schizophrenia
Essali, A., & Ali, G. (2012) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004162.pub2 · Cited by 45
Interventions for patients and caregivers to improve knowledge of sickle cell disease and recognition of its related complications
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Effectiveness of Serious Games for Improving Executive Functions Among Older Adults With Cognitive Impairment: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
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The Effectiveness of Serious Games in Improving Memory Among Older Adults With Cognitive Impairment: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Abd-Alrazaq, A. A., Alhuwail, D., Al-Jafar, E., Ahmed, A., Shuweihdi, F., Reagu, S. M., & Househ, M. S. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/35202 · Cited by 56
Cholinergic medication for antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia
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Efficacy of Pharmacological Therapies for Adhesive Capsulitis of the Shoulder: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis
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“4, as reported in a large-scale RCT on adhesive capsulitis.(39,63) To interpret the VAS change scores, we used the minimum clinically important difference (MCID) of –1.”
Method
Pimozide for schizophrenia or related psychoses
Mothi, M., & Sampson, S. J. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001949.pub3 · Cited by 44
Aripiprazole versus placebo for schizophrenia
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Training to recognise the early signs of recurrence in schizophrenia
Morriss, R. K., Vinjamuri, I., Faizal, M. A., Bolton, C. A., & McCarthy, J. P. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd005147.pub2 · Cited by 42
Chlorpromazine versus atypical antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia
Saha, K. B., Li, B., Zhao, S., Xia, J., Sampson, S. J., & Zaman, R. U. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010631.pub2 · Cited by 42
Botulinum toxin for shoulder pain
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Critical appraisal of the assessment of benefits and risks for foods, ‘BRAFO Consensus Working Group’
Boobis, A. R., Chiodini, A. M., Hoekstra, J., Λάγιου, Π., Przyrembel, H., Schlatter, J. R., Schütte, K., Verhagen, H., & Watzl, B. (2012) · Food and Chemical Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.028 · Cited by 42
Antipsychotic medication for early episode schizophrenia
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Bioidentical Estrogen for Menopausal Depressive Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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“This provides an approximate range of the possible clinical effects of intervention compared to placebo.(48) For the one study(49) that reported outcomes by two different depression scales, we analyzed the results of the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, which was the most commonly used scale among the included st…”
Pain management for rheumatoid arthritis and cardiovascular or renal comorbidity
Marks, J. L., Colebatch, A. N., Buchbinder, R., & Edwards, C. J. (2011) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008952.pub2 · Cited by 40
Topical glyceryl trinitrate for rotator cuff disease
Cumpston, M., Johnston, R. V., Wengier, L., & Buchbinder, R. (2009) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006355.pub2 · Cited by 39
Chlorpromazine dose for people with schizophrenia
Dudley, K., Liu, X., & Haan, S. D. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007778.pub2 · Cited by 38
Effect of Ghrelin on Mortality and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Experimental Rat and Mice Models of Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Khatib, M. N., Shankar, A. H., Kirubakaran, R., Agho, K., Simkhada, P. P., Gaidhane, S., Saxena, D. B., Unnikrishnan, B., Gode, D., Gaidhane, A. M., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126697 · Cited by 35
Psychoeducation for siblings of people with severe mental illness
Sin, J., Jordan, C., Barley, E. A., Henderson, C., & Norman, I. J. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010540.pub2 · Cited by 36
Aripiprazole versus other atypical antipsychotics for schizophrenia
Khanna, P., Komossa, K., Rummel‐Kluge, C., Hunger, H., Schwarz, S., El-Sayeh, H. G. G., & Leucht, S. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006569.pub4 · Cited by 35
Impact of partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) on constipation prevention: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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Prehabilitation programs for individuals with cancer: a systematic review of randomized-controlled trials
Meneses-Echavez, J. F., Loaiza-Betancur, A. F., Díaz-López, V., Echavarría-Rodríguez, A. M., & Triana-Reina, H. R. (2023) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-023-02373-4 · Cited by 31
“We followed the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations) approach to assess the certainty (or quality) of evidence in six major outcomes [27].”
Method
Pyridoxal 5 phosphate for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia
Adelufosi, A. O., Abayomi, O., & Ojo, T. M.-F. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010501.pub2 · Cited by 30
The best treatment option(s) for adult and elderly patients with chronic primary musculoskeletal pain: a protocol for a systematic review and network meta-analysis
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Carbamazepine for schizophrenia
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Information and communication technology based prompting for treatment compliance for people with serious mental illness
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Cognitive behavioural therapy (brief versus standard duration) for schizophrenia
Naeem, F., Farooq, S., & Kingdon, D. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010646.pub3 · Cited by 31
Management of gag reflex for patients undergoing dental treatment
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Serious Games for Learning Among Older Adults With Cognitive Impairment: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Abd-Alrazaq, A. A., Abuelezz, I., AlSaad, R., Al-Jafar, E., Ahmed, A., Aziz, S., Nashwan, A. J., & Sheikh, J. I. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/43607 · Cited by 28
RETRACTED: Armed violent conflict and healthcare-seeking behavior for maternal and child health in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review
Adeyanju, G. C., Schrage, P., Jalo, R. I., Abreu, L., & Schaub, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0317094 · Cited by 34
“The review sided with the World Health Organization (WHO) and Cochrane Collaboration on the principles of the GRADE system for evaluating the quality of evidence for outcomes reported in systematic reviews [33].”
Retracted
Trifluoperazine versus placebo for schizophrenia
Koch, K., Mansi, K., Haynes, E., Adams, C. E., Sampson, S. J., & Furtado, V. A. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010226.pub2 · Cited by 30
The Role of Economic Perspectives and Evidence in Systematic Review
Anderson, R., & Shemilt, I. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444320398.ch3 · Cited by 29
Effects of T'ai Chi on Balance: A Population-Based Meta-Analysis
Song, R., Ahn, S., So, H., Lee, E., Chung, Y., & Park, M. (2015) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2014.0056 · Cited by 28
Non-biologic pharmaceutical interventions for fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis
Almeida, C., Chalder, T., Cramp, F. L., Choy, E., Kirwan, J., HEWLETT, S. E., Pollock, J. I., & Christensen, R. (2010) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008795 · Cited by 27
Horticultural therapy for schizophrenia
Liu, Y., Li, B., Sampson, S. J., Roberts, S. A., Zhang, G., & Wu, W. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009413.pub2 · Cited by 29
Artesunate plus pyronaridine for treating uncomplicatedPlasmodium falciparummalaria
Bukirwa, H., Unnikrishnan, B., Kramer, C. V., et al. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006404.pub2 · Cited by 27
Homeopathy for Allergic Rhinitis: A Systematic Review
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“The treatment effect size of this trial, based on the RR and on the originally reported odds ratios, can be regarded as moderate.(45) For seasonal AR, and limiting interpretation of the evidence solely to trials without overtly high risk of bias, Galphimia glauca may improve ocular symptoms; improvement of nasal sympt…”
Fluphenazine versus low-potency first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia
Tardy, M., Huhn, M., Engel, R. R., & Leucht, S. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009230.pub2 · Cited by 27
Epidemiology and reporting characteristics of overviews of reviews of healthcare interventions published 2012–2016: protocol for a systematic review
Pieper, D., Pollock, M., Fernandes, R. M., Büchter, R. B., & Hartling, L. (2017) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0468-9 · Cited by 25
Risperidone (depot) for schizophrenia
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Effectiveness of interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in high-income vs. lower middle-income countries: An overview of systematic reviews and research papers from LMIC
Pervin, M. M., Ahmed, H. U., & Hagmayer, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.834783 · Cited by 35
“(113) 2020 Pivotal response treatment X X X X X X (Iran) 7 0 7 X X Cochrane’s risk of bias tool (114) GRADE system, (115, 116)”
Background
Flupenthixol decanoate (depot) for schizophrenia or other similar psychotic disorders
Mahapatra, J., Quraishi, S. N., David, A. S., Sampson, S. J., & Adams, C. E. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001470.pub2 · Cited by 24
Using longitudinal progress test data to determine the effect size of learning in undergraduate medical education – a retrospective, single-center, mixed model analysis of progress testing results
Görlich, D., & Friederichs, H. (2021) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.1080/10872981.2021.1972505 · Cited by 26
Pegloticase for chronic gout
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Pharmacological interventions for clozapine-induced sinus tachycardia
Lally, J., Docherty, M. J., & MacCabe, J. H. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011566.pub2 · Cited by 23
Specialist palliative care services for adults with advanced, incurable illness in hospital, hospice, or community settings—protocol for a systematic review
Gaertner, J., Siemens, W., Antes, G., Meerpohl, J. J., Xander, C. J., Schwarzer, G., Stock, S., & Becker, G. (2015) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-015-0121-4 · Cited by 24
Impact of structured education on glucose control and hypoglycaemia in Type-2 diabetes: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials
Yorke, E., & Atiase, Y. (2018) · Ghana Medical Journal · doi:10.4314/gmj.v52i1.8 · Cited by 25
“23, 24 The studies were graded as high, moderate, low or very low in quality.”
Background
Fluphenazine decanoate (depot) and enanthate for schizophrenia
Maayan, N., Quraishi, S. N., David, A. S., Jayaswal, A., Eisenbruch, M., Rathbone, J., Asher, R., & Adams, C. E. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd000307.pub2 · Cited by 25
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Madhuri, V., Dutt, V., Gahukamble, A. D., & Tharyan, P. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008775.pub2 · Cited by 24
Assessment of the quality of reporting for treatment components in Cochrane reviews of acupuncture
Kim, K. H., Kang, J. W., Lee, M. S., & Lee, J.-D. (2014) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004136 · Cited by 22
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists versus standard androgen suppression therapy for advanced prostate cancer A systematic review with meta-analysis
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Insertion torque and orthodontic mini-implants: A systematic review of the artificial bone literature
Reynders, R. M., Ronchi, L., Ladu, L., van Etten‐Jamaludin, F. S., & Bipat, S. (2013) · Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part H Journal of Engineering in Medicine · doi:10.1177/0954411913495986 · Cited by 21
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Larsen, K. S. R., Skoffer, B., Oestergaard, L. G., van Tulder, M. W., & Petersen, A. K. (2019) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2018.1564095 · Cited by 20
Acupuncture for schizophrenia
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Stefánsdóttir, Í. H., Ivarsson, T., & Skarphedinsson, G. (2023) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2022.2075460 · Cited by 19
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Nur, S., & Adams, C. E. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012122.pub2 · Cited by 20
Intermittent versus daily therapy for treating tuberculosis in children
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Psychological interventions for psychosis in adolescents
Datta, S. S., Daruvala, R., & Kumar, A. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009533.pub2 · Cited by 18
User-held personalised information for routine care of people with severe mental illness
Farrelly, S. E., Brown, G., Flach, C., Barley, E. A., Laugharne, R. A., & Henderson, C. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001711.pub2 · Cited by 17
Trifluoperazine versus low-potency first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia
Tardy, M., Dold, M., Engel, R. R., & Leucht, S. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009396.pub2 · Cited by 19
Exercise therapy in the treatment of tendinopathies of the lower limbs: a protocol of a systematic review
Franco, Y. R. D. S., Miyamoto, G. C., Franco, K. F. M., et al. (2019) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-019-1058-9 · Cited by 17
Flupenthixol versus placebo for schizophrenia
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Pericyazine for schizophrenia
Matar, H. E., Almerie, M. Q., Makhoul, S., Xia, J., & Humphreys, P. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007479.pub2 · Cited by 17
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Tardy, M., Huhn, M., Engel, R. R., & Leucht, S. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009369.pub2 · Cited by 17
Correction: Psychological Group-Treatments of Social Anxiety Disorder: A Meta-Analysis
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Morris, K., Syed, A., Reid, G. S., & Spencer, S. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012398 · Cited by 16
Multidisciplinary care for Guillain-Barré syndrome
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Botulinum toxin for shoulder pain
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An Application of a New Evidence Grading System to Research on the Chronic Care Model
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Multidisciplinary biopsychosocial rehabilitation for chronic low back pain: the need to present minimal important differences units in meta-analyses
Gianola, S., Andreano, A., Castellini, G., Moja, L., & Valsecchi, M. G. (2018) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-018-0924-9 · Cited by 17
Pressure-controlled versus volume-controlled ventilation for acute respiratory failure due to acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
Binila Chacko, I., Peter, J. V., Tharyan, P., et al. (2010) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008807 · Cited by 15
Prehabilitation programs for cancer patients: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (protocol)
Meneses-Echavez, J. F., Loaiza-Betancur, A. F., Díaz-López, V., et al. (2020) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-020-1282-3 · Cited by 14
Chlorpromazine versus piperacetazine for schizophrenia
Shahrbabaki, M. E., Sharafkhani, R., Dehnavieh, R., & Vali, L. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011709 · Cited by 14
Risperidone for psychosis induced aggression or agitation
Ahmed, U., Rehman, F., Jones, H. G., & Adams, C. E. (2011) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009412 · Cited by 14
Ovulation triggers in anovulatory women undergoing ovulation induction
George, K., Kamath, M. S., Nair, R., et al. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006900.pub3 · Cited by 14
Loxapine inhaler for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation
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Authors: Schünemann, H. J., Oxman, A. D., Vist, G. E., Higgins, J. P., Deeks, J. J., Glasziou, P., & Guyatt, G. H.
Affiliations: Instituto Nazionale Tumori Regina Elena (IT)
Nasjonalt Kunnskapssenter for Helsetjenesten (NO)
MRC Biostatistics Unit (GB)
University of Birmingham (GB)
University of Oxford (GB)
McMaster University (CA)
ORCID: Schünemann, Holger J
Oxman, Andrew D
Vist, Gunn E
Higgins, Julian PT
Deeks, Jonathan J
Glasziou, Paul
Guyatt, Gordon H
Venue: Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2008-09-22
Pages: 359-387
DOI: 10.1002/9780470712184.ch12
OpenAlex: W4205195518
Cited by: 366
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 55
Type: other
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Keywords: evidence quality assessment, applicability, statistical interpretation, binary outcomes, number needed to treat, continuous outcomes, standardized mean difference

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