The Politically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm, Part 1: What Politically Motivated Reasoning Is and How to Measure It

Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence

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Cultural cognition of scientific consensus.

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The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory

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Party Over Policy: The Dominating Impact of Group Influence on Political Beliefs.

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Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial

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The Rationalizing Voter

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Using Mechanical Turk to Study Clinical Populations

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Conducting Clinical Research Using Crowdsourced Convenience Samples

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Rationality and the Reflective Mind

Stanovich, K. (2010) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341140.001.0001 · Cited by 1,041

Mobilizing Falsehoods

Lepoutre, M. (2024) · Philosophy & Public Affairs · doi:10.1111/papa.12254 · Cited by 16

Flexing the Extremes: Increasing Cognitive Flexibility With a Paradoxical Leading Questions Intervention

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Polarization within consensus? An audience segmentation model of politically dependent climate attitudes in Denmark

Lind, A. V., Hallsson, B. G., & Morton, T. A. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102054 · Cited by 18

Artificial Intelligence in Election Campaigns: Perceptions, Penalties, and Implications

Jungherr, A. M., Rauchfleisch, A., & Wuttke, A. (2026) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2025.2611913 · Cited by 15

Sincere or Motivated? Partisan Bias in Advice-taking

Zhang, Y., & Rand, D. G. (2021) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2023.28 · Cited by 16

What is Knowledge Resistance? 1

Glüer, K., & Wikforss, Å. M. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003111474-2 · Cited by 15

Doing justice: Moving from the pain and trauma of injustice to healing

Bies, R. J., & Barclay, L. J. (2024) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/20413866231225083 · Cited by 14

Alternative psychotherapies: Conceptual elucidation and epidemiological framework.

Fasce, A., & Adrián‐Ventura, J. (2020) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/pro0000310 · Cited by 14

Motivated moral judgments about freedom of speech are constrained by a need to maintain consistency

Eftedal, N. H., & Thomsen, L. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104623 · Cited by 14

Why No True Reliabilist Should Endorse Reliabilism

Ahlstrom‐Vij, K., & Dunn, J. (2020) · Episteme · doi:10.1017/epi.2020.46 · Cited by 13

Political Polarization Over Factual Beliefs

Rekker, R. (2022) · Knowledge Resistance in High-Choice Information Environments · doi:10.4324/9781003111474-12 · Cited by 13

Attention to news media coverage of unconventional oil/gas development impacts: Exploring psychological antecedents and effects on issue support

Clarke, C. E., & Evensen, D. T. N. (2023) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113355 · Cited by 13

The Epistemology of Justice

Anderson, E. (2020) · The Southern Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1111/sjp.12351 · Cited by 13

An argument for egalitarian confirmation bias and against political diversity in academia

Peters, U. (2020) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-020-02846-2 · Cited by 12

Thinking the Relationships Between Conspiracy Mentality and Belief in Conspiracy Theories

Nera, K. (2024) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000551 · Cited by 10

Evaluating the Influence of Role-Playing Prompts on ChatGPT’s Misinformation Detection Accuracy: Quantitative Study

Haupt, M. R., Yang, L., Purnat, T. D., & Mackey, T. K. (2024) · JMIR Infodemiology · doi:10.2196/60678 · Cited by 18

A four-level model of political polarization over science: Evidence from 10 European countries

Rekker, R. (2025) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/09636625241306352 · Cited by 12

A motivational systems approach to investigating opinions on climate change

Molden, D. C., Bayes, R., & Druckman, J. N. (2022) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2021.1982003 · Cited by 12

Herausforderungen für den Journalismus über Wissenschaft in der Coronapandemie – erste Beobachtungen zu einem Weltereignis

Stollorz, V. (2020) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-020-03257-x · Cited by 12

Equalitarianism: A Source of Liberal BiasPreprint

Winegard, B., Clark, C., & Hasty, C. R. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3175680 · Cited by 12

Motivated Reasoning

Leeper, T. J., & Mullinix, K. J. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0237 · Cited by 12

Psychological Underpinnings of Disinformation Countermeasures: A Systematic Scoping ReviewPreprint

Ziemer, C., & Rothmund, T. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/scq5v · Cited by 12

Echo chambers, polarization, and “Post-truth”: In search of a connection

Munroe, W. (2023) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2023.2174426 · Cited by 15

How Negative Frames Can Undermine Public Support for Studying Solar Geoengineering in the U.S

Bolsen, T., Palm, R. I., & Kingsland, J. T. (2022) · Frontiers in Environmental Science · doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.850514 · Cited by 14

Financial Homo Ignorans: Development and validation of a scale to measure individual differences in financial information ignorance

Barrafrem, K., Västfjäll, D., & Tinghög, G. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2024.100936 · Cited by 45

“Unmotivated bias” and partisan hostility: Empirical evidence

Stone, D. F. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2018.12.009 · Cited by 11

Why, how, and when divergent perceptions become dysfunctional in organizations: A Motivated cognition perspective

Lyubykh, Z., Barclay, L. J., Fortin, M., Bashshur, M. R., & Khakhar, M. (2022) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2022.100177 · Cited by 11

Ideology as a Moral-Relational Language

Sheehy-Skeffington, J. A., & Thomsen, L. (2023) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2023.2192649 · Cited by 11

The Politics of Speech on Campus 1

Kidder, J. L., & Binder, A. J. (2021) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12681 · Cited by 10

Wind beneath their contempt: Why Australian policymakers oppose solar and wind energy

Hudson, M. (2017) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2017.03.014 · Cited by 10

Stakes of Knowing the Truth: A Motivational Perspective on the Popularity of a Controversial Scientific Theory

Morisseau, T., Origgi, G., & Branch, T. Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708751 · Cited by 10

Realizing Epistemic Democracy

Pivato, M. (2019) · Studies in economic design · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18050-8_16 · Cited by 9

Perceived feasibility and potential barriers of a net-zero system transition among Japanese experts

Ju, Y., Sugiyama, M., & Shiraki, H. (2023) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-023-01079-8 · Cited by 9

Risk perception, but also political orientation, modulate behavioral response to COVID-19: A randomized survey experiment

Torrente, F. M., Low, D. M., & Yoris, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.900684 · Cited by 9

Institutional hybridity and policy-motivated reasoning structure public evaluations of the Supreme Court

Gadarian, S. K., & Strother, L. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0294525 · Cited by 10

Effects of system-sanctioned framing on climate awareness and environmental action in the United States and beyond

Mason, K. A., Vlasceanu, M., & Jost, J. T. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2405973121 · Cited by 14

The Scourge of Disinformation-Assisted Hate Propaganda

George, C. (2020) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/11807.003.0016 · Cited by 9

Feels like home: Effect of transnational identities on attitudes towards foreign countries

Tokdemir, E. (2020) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343320943251 · Cited by 9

Illusion of explanatory depth and social desirability of historical knowledge

Martínez, C. D. G., & Corredor, J. (2021) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-021-09267-7 · Cited by 13

Internal Deliberation Defending Climate-Harmful Behavior

Söderberg, M. W., & Wormbs, N. (2022) · Argumentation · doi:10.1007/s10503-021-09562-2 · Cited by 9

Believing and Sharing False News on Social Media: The Role of News Presentation, Epistemic Motives, and Deliberative Thinking

Yan, W., & Pan, Z. (2023) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2208363 · Cited by 15

The Impact of Pathogen-Disgust Sensitivity on Vaccine and GM Food Risk Perceptions: Some Evidence for SkepticismPreprint

Kahan, D. M., & Hilgard, J. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2891623 · Cited by 11

Political Opinion Leaders in High-Choice Information Environments: Are They More Informed Than Others?

Strömbäck, J., Lindgren, E., Tsfati, Y., Damstra, A., Vliegenthart, R., Boomgaarden, H. G., Broda, E., Lebernegg, N. S., & Galyga, S. (2023) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2023.2281311 · Cited by 10

The influence of COVID-19 science views, risk perceptions, and group membership on socioscientific decisions

Herman, B. C., Clough, M. P., & Sobotka, A. J. (2024) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2023.2300378 · Cited by 8

Optimal Persuasion under Confirmation Bias: Theory and Evidence From a Registered Report

Christensen, L. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2021.21 · Cited by 8

Beyond Polarization: Right-Wing News as a Quasi-religious Phenomenon

Mann, M., & Winchester, D. (2025) · Sociological Theory · doi:10.1177/07352751251326951 · Cited by 8

Poll Wars: Perceptions of Poll Credibility and Voting Behaviour

Dawson, S. (2022) · The International Journal of Press/Politics · doi:10.1177/19401612221087181 · Cited by 9

The explanation-polarisation model: Pseudoscience spreads through explanatory satisfaction and group polarisation

Fasce, A. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.8051 · Cited by 10

Factors Related to Compliance with CDC COVID-19 Guidelines: Media Use, Partisan Identity, Science Knowledge, and Risk Assessment

Zhu, Y., Fitzpatrick, M. A., & Bowen, S. A. (2023) · Western Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/10570314.2023.2219239 · Cited by 8

The Importance and Limitation of Epistemic Norms in Political Theory

Erman, E., & Möller, N. (2024) · Political Studies Review · doi:10.1177/14789299241266196 · Cited by 6

Estimating the causal effects of cognitive effort and policy information on party cue influencePreprint

Tappin, B. M., & McKay, R. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tdk3y · Cited by 6

Rank-heterogeneous effects of political messages: Evidence from randomized survey experiments testing 59 video treatmentsPreprint

Hewitt, L., & Tappin, B. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xk6t3 · Cited by 6

AI Agency in Fact-Checking: Role-Based Machine Heuristics and Publics’ Conspiratorial Orientation

Lan, D., Zhu, Y., Liu, M., & He, C. (2025) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.9516 · Cited by 7

Consumer acceptance of gene-edited non-browning bananas to reduce food waste

Pittman, A., Kemper, N., McFadden, B. R., Durand‐Morat, A., Nalley, L. L., & Rider, S. (2026) · Discover Food · doi:10.1007/s44187-025-00773-0 · Cited by 5

Radical Realism and the Motivated Reasoning Connection

Kreutz, A. (2024) · Political Studies Review · doi:10.1177/14789299241307219 · Cited by 5

Intuitive judgements towards artificial intelligence verdicts of moral transgressions

Liu, Y., & Moore, A. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12908 · Cited by 8

Novices and Expert Disagreement

Ballantyne, N. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197636916.003.0011 · Cited by 5

Democratizing Risk Governance

Gattinger, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24271-7 · Cited by 5

Thinking structures of climate delay: internal deliberations among Swedes with sustainable ambitions

Wormbs, N., & Söderberg, M. W. (2023) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-023-03618-x · Cited by 5

Expert opinion and public support of genetically modified food policy: Does deficit model work in China?

Shao, L. H., & Ieong, M. U. (2024) · Review of Policy Research · doi:10.1111/ropr.12603 · Cited by 5

Preparing to adapt: are public expectations in line with climate projections?

Eschliman, C. M., Kuster, E. L., RIPBERGER, J. T., & Wootten, A. (2020) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-020-02830-2 · Cited by 5

Premise Disputes and Political Ideology

Barker, D. C., & Marietta, M. (2020) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123420000460 · Cited by 4

How political partisanship can shape memories and perceptions of identical protest events

Hennessey, E., Feinberg, M., & Wilson, A. E. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259416 · Cited by 5

Behavioral and institutional performance management theories are popular. Here is why we need to add a relational perspective

Kroll, A. (2022) · Journal of Public Budgeting Accounting & Financial Management · doi:10.1108/jpbafm-04-2022-0063 · Cited by 4

Using cross-disciplinary knowledge to facilitate advancements in animal communication and science communication research

Hebets, E. A., & Anderson, A. G. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.179978 · Cited by 5

Opinion dynamics model based on cognitive biasesPreprint

Sobkowicz, P. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1703.01501 · Cited by 5

Hållbarhetsretorik och hållbar retorik

Söderberg, M. W. (2022) · Rhetorica Scandinavica · doi:10.52610/rhs.v24i80.28 · Cited by 4

Ideological biases in research evaluations? The case of research on majority–minority relations

Finseraas, H., Midtbøen, A. H., & Thorbjørnsrud, K. (2022) · Scandinavian Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9477.12229 · Cited by 4

Motivated Reasoning and Risk Governance: What Risk Scholars and Practitioners Need to Know

Beck, M., Ahmed, R., Douglas, H., Driedger, S. M., Gattinger, M., Kiss, S. J., Kuzma, J., Larkin, P., O’Doherty, K. C., Perrella, A. M. L., et al. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24271-7_2 · Cited by 6

Explaining Political Polarization Over Abortion

Jędryczka, W., Misiak, M., & Whitehouse, H. (2023) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000525 · Cited by 4

Loyalties and interests: How political motivations influence voters’ responses to scandals

Filho, A. J. P., Stephenson, L. B., & Turgeon, M. (2024) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102792 · Cited by 4

Moral commitment to gender equality increases (mis)perceptions of gender bias in hiring

Xiao, H., Marie, A., & Strickland, B. (2024) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3071 · Cited by 7

Distinguishing Underlying, Inferred, and Expressed Preferences, Attitudes, and Beliefs: An Absence of (Mental) Flatness?

Brown, G. D. A., & Walasek, L. (2025) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12787 · Cited by 4

The Problem of Political Ignorance

Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0007 · Cited by 4

Democracy

Brennan, J. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.001.0001 · Cited by 4

The Ocean of Possible Truth. Drivers and Consequences of News Accuracy Judgements OnlinePreprint

von Hohenberg, B. C. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3281038 · Cited by 4

The Supply of Motivated BeliefsPreprint

Thaler, M. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4494688 · Cited by 4

Modeling and leveraging intuitive theories to improve vaccine attitudesPreprint

Powell, D., Weisman, K., & Markman, E. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r3znw · Cited by 4

Don’t you see that its cold! Exploring the roles of cognitive reflection, climate science literacy, illusion of knowledge, and political orientation in climate change skepticismPreprint

Trémolière, B., & Djeriouat, H. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vp8k6 · Cited by 4

Ideological Asymmetries in Motivated Reasoning and the Mechanisms of Attitude Polarization: A Two-Wave Survey ExperimentPreprint

Morisi, D., Goldberg, M. H., & Jost, J. T. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/agjz2 · Cited by 4

Failure to Launch: False Starts in Designing the Political Science Capstone as a True Ending to the Major

Houck, A. M. (2019) · Journal of Political Science Education · doi:10.1080/15512169.2019.1598873 · Cited by 3

Introduction

Strömbäck, J., Wikforss, Å. M., Glüer, K., Lindholm, T., & Oscarsson, H. E. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003111474-1 · Cited by 4

An empirical investigation of emotion and the criminal law: towards a “criminalization bias”?

Coppelmans, J. N., Wagemans, F. M. A., & van Dillen, L. F. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-02842-8 · Cited by 8

Where is the Motivation in Motivated Numeracy?

Glüer, K., & Spectre, L. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00737-w · Cited by 5

Boldogok a kormánypártiak : A kormánypárthoz kötődés és a boldogság összefüggése Európában

Patkós, V., & Farkas, E. (2020) · Socio hu · doi:10.18030/socio.hu.2020.4.1 · Cited by 3

Perceptions of opinion poll credibility: The role of partisan bias

Dawson, S. (2022) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/13540688221098837 · Cited by 3

Ideal and Non-Ideal Theory

McKenna, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.003.0002 · Cited by 3

Alignment of values and political orientations amplifies climate change attitudes and behaviorsPreprint

Smith, E. K., & Hempel, L. M. (2021) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/72wfu · Cited by 3

Happiness Dynamics, Reference Dependence, and Motivated Beliefs in U.S. Presidential Elections

Kimball, M., Raymond, C., Zhou, J., Zhou, J., Ohtake, F., & Tsutsui, Y. (2024) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w32078 · Cited by 3

The emergence of polarised groups through source filtering

Jansson, F., & Hattiangadi, A. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-06419-x · Cited by 4

Understanding Partisan Bias in Judgments of Misinformation: Identity Protection Versus Differential Knowledge

Hubeny, T. J., Nahon, L. S., & Gawronski, B. (2026) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976251404040 · Cited by 3

Party Identity and the Evaluation of Political Candidates

Zabinski, A. M., & Bolsen, T. (2017) · DISCOVERY Georgia State Honors College Undergraduate Research Journal · doi:10.31922/disc4.1 · Cited by 3

Think different? Populist attitudes and their consequences on vote behaviour in the 2016 and 2020 italian constitutional referenda

Bertolotti, M., Leone, C., & Catellani, P. (2021) · Quaderni dell Osservatorio elettorale QOE - IJES · doi:10.36253/qoe-10710 · Cited by 2

Emphasizing uncertainty, celebrating community and valuing values: science communication remedies for the COVID-19 era and beyond

Mason‐Wilkes, W. (2023) · Interdisciplinary Science Reviews · doi:10.1080/03080188.2022.2152245 · Cited by 2

Candidate Debates and Partisan Divisions Evidence From Malawi’s 2019 Presidential Elections

Kramon, E. (2023) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140231193016 · Cited by 2

Prior Attitude, Individualism and Perceived Scientists’ Expertise

Zhu, Y., Xu, J., Zhang, R., Lan, D., & Jiang, Y. (2024) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000437 · Cited by 2

Communicating About Renewable Energy With Satire: The Influence of Gentle and Harsh Humor Tones on Perceived Message Credibility and Information Reliance

Freiling, I., Cacciatore, M. A., Su, L. Y.-F., Yeon, J., Park, S., Du, W., Zhang, J. S., Yeo, S. K., & Siskind, S. R. (2024) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470241293361 · Cited by 2

Bad Judges: Why Companies Should Not Police Employees’ Extramural Speech

Brennan, J. (2024) · Philosophy of Management · doi:10.1007/s40926-024-00329-9 · Cited by 2

Saving Money or Saving Energy? Decision Architecture and Decision Modes to Encourage Energy Saving Behaviors

Forster, H. A. (2020) · doi:10.7916/d8-wbjn-4w80 · Cited by 2

Cognitive-Affective Styles of Biden and Trump Supporters: An Automated Text Analysis Study

Abe, J. A. A. (2022) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506221082737 · Cited by 2

The Politically Motivated Reasoning ParadigmPreprint

Kahan, D. M. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 54

The Processing Dynamics of Politically Motivated Reasoning

Neider, D. P. (2020) · doi:10.46569/20.500.12680/4f16c8553

Thinking clearly about causal inferences of politically motivated reasoning: Why paradigmatic study designs often undermine causal inferencePreprint

Tappin, B. M., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k3jhy · Cited by 28

The ``Fake News'' Effect: Experimentally Identifying Motivated Reasoning Using Trust in News

Thaler, M. (2020) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.4339-1.0 · Cited by 11

Replication Data for: The Role of Evidence in Politics: Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion among Politicians

Bækgaard, M. (2017) · Harvard Dataverse · doi:10.7910/dvn/fkwzhf