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Cited by 1,614Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionSocial and Intergroup PsychologyCultural Differences and Values

The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory

Open access
Sherman, David K., Cohen, Geoffrey L.·2006·Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
DOI 10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5
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AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review chapter updates self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988), which holds that people are motivated to protect self-integrity and that affirming an important value unrelated to a threat can reduce defensive responses. Across domains—biased assimilation, health persuasion, stress physiology, dissonance, stereotyping, collective identity, and stereotype threat—self-affirmation reduced defensiveness, though the authors document conditions under which affirmations backfire.

Key findings

  • Self-affirmed participants became more balanced in evaluating counter-attitudinal evidence: in Cohen et al. (2000), affirmed partisans shifted attitudes toward the report they read, and in a negotiation study affirmation increased concessions and led pro-choice participants to view their pro-life adversary as more objective and trustworthy.
  • Affirmation changed health behavior: after an AIDS-educational video, 50% of affirmed participants purchased condoms versus 25% of non-affirmed; 78% of affirmed versus 54% of non-affirmed took an AIDS brochure (Sherman et al., 2000). Affirmed heavy-drinking women perceived greater breast-cancer risk, an effect persisting one month (Harris & Napper, 2005).
  • Affirmation buffered physiological stress: in Creswell et al. (2005), control participants showed elevated salivary cortisol at 20–45 minutes post-Trier Social Stress Task while affirmed participants did not.
  • Affirmation reduced self- and group-serving bias in intramural athletes; the self–group attribution correlation was r = .60 without affirmation and r = −.10 with it (Sherman & Kim, 2005). For patriots/anti-patriots evaluating an anti-US foreign policy report, the identity–openness correlation fell from r = .58 (34% of variance) to r = −.05.
  • Affirmation eliminated stereotype threat effects on women's math performance (Martens et al., 2006) and eliminated prejudice against a stereotyped job candidate (Fein & Spencer, 1997).
  • Backfire conditions: same-domain affirmations, moral-credential affirmations, and objectivity affirmations increased resistance, discrimination, or "moral impunity" (e.g., Brown, 2000; Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005b).

Methods

  • Design: narrative review/theoretical chapter synthesizing experimental research conducted within the self-affirmation framework; no new primary data are reported.
  • Scope: laboratory and field experiments across individual threats (biased assimilation, health information, stress, cognitive dissonance, social perception) and collective threats (group-serving judgments, national identity, stereotype threat, perceptions of racism), plus moderator variables (culture, self-esteem, identity centrality/salience, backfire conditions).
  • Analysis: qualitative integration of findings, including reported effect sizes, correlations, and percentages from cited studies; the authors also propose mechanisms (implicit positive affect, state self-esteem, self-certainty) and discuss awareness as a moderator.

Limitations

  • Stated: few studies have examined longer-term effects of self-affirmation; durable effects on risk perception were found at one month but long-term effects on behavior "have not been established" (Harris & Napper, 2005).
  • Stated: "few if any consistent mediators have emerged across multiple studies," and the ultimate (superordinate) function of self-integrity is difficult to answer.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative review rather than a systematic one, and several supporting studies are cited as unpublished manuscripts, dissertations, or manuscripts under review, so some evidence had not yet undergone peer review at the time of writing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5

Cites

228 of 228 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 222 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2000) third study, participants who did not receive self-affirmation judged the activist who shared their convictions more favorably than the activist who did not.

    “Participants who did not receive a self-aYrmation judged the activist who shared their convictions more favorably than the activist who did not (see also Hastorf & Cantril, 1954).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hastorf & Cantril, 1954 source

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  • Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2005) study, affirmation led participants to evaluate their adversary as more objective and trustworthy (less influenced by self-interest and ideology).

    “More dramatically, aYrmation also led participants to evaluate their adversary as more objective and trustworthy (i.e., as less influenced by self-interest and ideology)-a finding with clear implications for realworld negotiation where the cultivation of trust is a critical step in the resolution of conflict.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    In the Sherman et al. (2000) study, 25% of non-affirmed individuals purchased condoms after viewing the video, whereas 50% of affirmed participants did so.

    “Whereas 25% of nonaYrmed individuals purchased condoms after viewing the video, 50% of aYrmed participants did so.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Cohen et al. (2005) found that self-affirmed participants exhibited more balanced cognitive and affective responses to a counter-attitudinal report than did their non-affirmed peers.

    “Also consistent with the claim that self-aYrmation helps reduce the bias of personal beliefs in processing information, Cohen et al. (2005) found that self-aYrmed participants exhibited more balanced cognitive and aVective responses to a counter-attitudinal report than did their non-aYrmed peers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen et al. (2005)

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  • Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2005) study, affirmation increased the number of concessions pro-choice participants made to their pro-life adversary (e.g., they were more likely to agree to parental notification).

    “It was found that aYrmation increased the number of concessions that pro-choice participants made to their pro-life adversary (e.g., they were more likely to agree to the idea of parental notification).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 63
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14

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    Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2000) third study, participants who were given self-affirmation became more balanced in their evaluation of the two activists and asserted relatively less confidence in the validity of their abortion attitudes compared to non-affirmed peers.

    “In contrast, participants who were given a self-aYrmation became more balanced in their evaluation of the two activists and asserted that they were relatively less confident of the validity of their abortion attitudes, relative to their nonaYrmed peers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2000) study, self-affirmed participants changed their global attitudes toward capital punishment in the direction of the report they read: proponents supported the death penalty less, and opponents supported it more.

    “Participants even changed their global attitudes toward capital punishment in the direction of the report they read.That is, proponents of capital punishment supported the death penalty less, and opponents of capital punishment supported it more (Cohen et al., 2000, Study 2).”
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    • cites Cohen et al., 2000 source

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    Findingreasoning

    In the Sherman et al. (2000) study, coffee-drinking women who completed a self-affirmation proved more open to the message than any other group and intended to reduce their coffee drinking accordingly.

    “By contrast, coVee-drinking women who had completed a scale that enabled them to assert the personal importance of a central value (e.g., their religious or political values) proved more open to the message than any other group and intended to reduce their coVee drinking accordingly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the Cohen, Aronson, and Steele (2000) study, in the no-affirmation control condition, participants found flaws in the methodology of studies that contradicted their political beliefs, suspected bias on the part of the authors, and persisted in their attitudes about capital punishment.

    “In the no-aYrmation control condition, our findings mirrored those of Lord et al. (1979).Participants found flaws in the methodology of the studies that contradicted their political beliefs, they suspected bias on the part of the authors of the report, and they persisted in their attitudes about capital punishment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lord et al. (1979) source

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    Findingcitation

    In the Cohen et al. (2000) study, self-affirmed participants were less critical of the reported research and suspected less bias on the part of the authors.

    “By contrast, the responses of participants who aYrmed a valued self-identity proved more balanced.That is, self-aYrmed participants were less critical of the reported research and suspected less bias on the part of the authors of the report.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    In the Sherman et al. (2000) study, non-affirmed participants tended to resist the AIDS-educational information (maintaining perceived risk from pretest levels), while affirmed participants increased their perceived potential risk for contracting AIDS.

    “Although non-aYrmed participants tended to resist the presented information (maintaining their perceived risk from pretest levels), aYrmed participants responded by increasing their perceived potential risk for contracting AIDS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    In a self-affirmed condition, patriots became more open to the report and anti-patriots became more skeptical of it.

    “in a condition where participants self-aYrmed prior to reading the report (by writing about an important value unrelated to their national identity), patriots became more open to the report, and anti-patriots became more skeptical of it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen et al., 2005

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    Findingcitation

    Women in the diagnostic condition who completed a self-affirmation performed as well as women in the no-threat condition and no differently from male college students.

    “women in the diagnostic condition who completed a self-aYrmation-where they wrote about an important value unrelated to math or to their gender-performed as well as women in the no-threat condition and no diVerent from male college students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martens et al., 2006 source

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    Findingcitation

    Smokers who relapsed and began smoking again reduced their self-perceived risk of acquiring smoking-related illnesses, but only among high self-esteem smokers.

    “The smokers who relapsed and began smoking again reduced the dissonance associated with this attitude-discrepant behavior (discrepant because they were committed to quitting smoking) by reducing their self-perceived risk of acquiring smoking-related illnesses.”
    • Also stated in: § B. SELF-ESTEEM · plain
      “However, this occurred only among high self-esteem smokers (Gibbons et al., 1997).”
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    • cites Gibbons et al., 1997 source

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    Findingcitation

    Interdependent self-affirmation reduced dissonance-motivated rationalization when participants had to make a choice for a friend, whereas independent self-affirmation did not.

    “the interdependent aYrmation reduced dissonance-motivated rationalization when participants had to make a choice for a friend, whereas the independent self-aYrmation did not.”
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    • cites Hoshino-Browne et al., 2005

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    Findingcitation

    For European Canadians, independent affirmation reduced dissonance-motivated rationalization, but interdependent affirmation did not.

    “for the European Canadians, the opposite eVect occurred: the independent aYrmation reduced dissonance-motivated rationalization, but the interdependent aYrmation did not.”
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    • cites Hoshino-Browne et al., 2005

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    Findingcitation

    High self-esteem people were less likely to rationalize a choice they had made.

    “they found that high self-esteem people were less likely to rationalize a choice they had made”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steele et al., 1993 source

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    Findingreasoning

    Only heavy caffeine consumers respond defensively to a report linking caffeine use and fibrocystic disease and exhibit greater openness to the report when self-affirmed.

    “it is only heavy caVeine consumers who respond defensively to such a report (e.g., Kunda, 1987;Liberman and Chaiken, 1992) and who exhibit greater openness to the report when self-aYrmed (Sherman et al., 2000).”
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    • cites Sherman et al., 2000 source

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    Findingcitation

    People who affirmed their lack of prejudice later proved more prejudiced; they were more willing to state that a particular job was more appropriate for White workers than for Black ones.

    “Relative to those who did not aYrm their lack of prejudice, those who did later proved more prejudiced; that is, they were more willing to state that a particular job (one that could have posed problems for a minority due to its hostile work environment) was more appropriate for White workers than for Black ones.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Morally affirmed subjects advocated forcing foreign graduate students to carry identification papers and became more favorable to banishing all foreign students from studying in American universities.

    “They advocated to a greater extent the policy of forcing foreign graduate students to carry identification papers with them at all times and even became more favorable to the proposal to banish all foreign students from studying in American universities.”
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    • cites Brown, 2000

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    Findingcitation

    In the American flag condition, participants interpreted information critical of the United States in a manner consistent with their national identity, but a self-affirmation eliminated this bias.

    “The results in the American flag condition were described previously: participants interpreted information critical of the United States in a manner consistent with their national identity-but a self-aYrmation eliminated this bias.”
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    • cites Cohen et al., 2005

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    Findingnone given

    Participants showed little, if any, awareness of the thematic content of the words used in the self-affirmation task and no awareness at all of the potential impact of this task on their interest in math careers.

    “participants showed little, if any, awareness of the thematic content of the words used in the self-aYrmation task and no awareness at all of the potential impact of this task on their interest in math careers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The self-system is flexible; people often compensate for failures in one aspect of their lives by emphasizing successes in other domains.

    “People often compensate for failures in one aspect of their lives by emphasizing successes in other domains.”
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    • cites Allport (1961)

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    • cites Murphy (1947)

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    Premisereasoning

    When self-integrity is threatened, people are motivated to repair it, and this motivation can lead to defensive responses.

    “When self-integrity is threatened, people are motivated to repair it, and this motivation can lead to defensive responses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisereasoning

    Self-affirmation theory proposes a third alternative response to threats: affirming alternative self-resources unrelated to the provoking threat, which can enable both restoration of self-integrity and adaptive behavior change.

    “Self-aYrmation theory proposes a third alternative, a diVerent kind of psychological adaptation-one that, under many circumstances, enables both the restoration of self-integrity and adaptive behavior change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Aronson et al., 1999

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    • cites Sherman & Cohen, 2002 source

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    • cites Steele, 1988

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    Premisecitation

    In the Reed and Aspinwall (1998) study, heavy caffeine consumers who were affirmed oriented more rapidly to risk-confirming information, viewed it as more convincing, and recalled less risk-disconfirming information at a one-week follow-up.

    “The heavy caVeine consumers who were aYrmed oriented more rapidly to the risk-confirming information, that is, they looked at this information more quickly and viewed it as more convincing.Furthermore, the aYrmed heavy caVeine consumers recalled less risk-disconfirming information at a one-week follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reed & Aspinwall, 1998 source

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    Premisereasoning

    People often resist threatening health messages and subsequently persist in unhealthful or risky behaviors.

    “Although it would be optimal if people responded to personal health information by ceasing risky behavior, people often resist threatening health messages, and subsequently, persist in unhealthful or risky behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    When self-affirmed, people realize their self-worth does not hinge on the evaluative implications of the immediate situation, so they have less need to distort the threat and can respond more open and evenhanded.

    “When self-aYrmed in this manner, people realize that their self-worth does not hinge on the evaluative implications of the immediate situation.As a result, they have less need to distort or reconstrue the provoking threat and can respond to the threatening information in a more open and evenhanded manner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    In the Lord et al. (1979) study, when the study was consistent with participants' prior beliefs, they thought it was better conducted and more convincing regardless of design; reading mixed evidence led them to become more confident in their beliefs about the deterrent efficacy of the death penalty.

    “When the study was consistent with participants' prior beliefs, they thought it was better conducted and more convincing regardless of the specific design (concurrent versus panel) of the study.Moreover, reading a mixed bag of evidence-one study supporting and one study contradicting their beliefs-led participants to report becoming more confident in the validity of their beliefs about the deterre”
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    • cites Lord et al. (1979) source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Those qualities that are central to how people see themselves are potential domains of self-affirmation.

    “Those qualities that are central to how people see themselves are potential domains of self-aYrmation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Affirmations satisfy the motivation to maintain self-integrity, thus reducing the normal psychological adaptations people engage to ameliorate a specific provoking threat.

    “AYrmations satisfy the motivation to maintain selfintegrity-thus, they reduce the normal psychological adaptations people engage to ameliorate a specific provoking threat.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Steele (1988) first proposed the theory of self-affirmation, which asserts that the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of its self-integrity, of its moral and adaptive adequacy.

    “Steele (1988) first proposed the theory of self-aYrmation.It asserts that the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of its self-integrity, of its moral and adaptive adequacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steele, 1988

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    Interpretationreasoning

    When self-affirmed, individuals feel as though the task of proving their worth is settled, so they can focus on other salient demands beyond ego protection.

    “When self-aYrmed, individuals feel as though the task of proving their worth, both to themselves and to others, is ''settled.''As a consequence, they can focus on other salient demands in the situation beyond ego protection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    In Harris and Napper (2005), high-risk participants who completed self-affirmation had stronger intentions to reduce alcohol consumption at the experimental session, but this was not associated with drinking reduction during the following month.

    “Finally, the high-risk participants who completed the self-aYrmation had stronger intentions to reduce their alcohol consumption at the experimental session, although this was not associated with more positive health behaviors in the form of drinking reduction during the following month.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harris and Napper (2005)

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    Interpretationcitation

    Self-affirmation can decrease ruminative thinking, and this may be one mechanism by which it makes stressors less stressful.

    “Self-aYrmation, then, can decrease ruminative thinking, and this may be one mechanism by which it makes stressors less stressful.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    In Creswell et al. (2006), the number of affirming statements in essays fully mediated the intervention effects on physical symptoms at 3-month follow-up, whereas no mediating role was found for cognitive processing or discovery of meaning.

    “Interestingly, the number of aYrming statements made in the essays (e.g., ''We have been married over 31 years and we are very lucky because we still love each other.'')fully mediated the intervention eVects found on physical symptoms at 3-month follow-up, whereas (at least in this study) no mediating role was found for cognitive processing or discovery of meaning.”
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    • cites Creswell et al., 2006

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    Premisecitation

    Common laboratory methods for inducing stress, such as the Trier Social Stress Task, have reliably been shown to threaten the self, induce appraisals of threat, and elicit cortisol.

    “These tasks have reliably been shown to threaten the self, induce appraisals of threat, and elicit the stress hormone cortisol (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004).”
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    • cites Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004 source

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    Interpretationcitation

    The effects of self-affirmation on risk perceptions in Harris and Napper (2005) proved durable at one month, but long-term effects on behavior have not been established.

    “Thus, the eVects of the self-aYrmation proved durable (1 month) at aVecting risk perceptions, although the long-term eVects on behavior have not been established.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    The self-affirmation seemed to buffer individuals from the potential threat of the AIDS-educational message, opened them to the possibility that they were at risk, and motivated them to undertake preventive behaviors.

    “The self-aYrmation seemed to buVer individuals from the potential threat of the AIDS-educational message, opened them to the possibility that they were at risk, and motivated them to undertake preventive behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Compared to all other groups, undergraduates who wrote affirming essays over winter break reported the least amount of stress and visited the health center significantly less often when they returned to school.

    “Compared to all other groups, those who wrote the aYrming essays over winter break reported the least amount of stress, and visited the health center significantly less often (when they returned to school).”
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    • cites Keough et al., 1998

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    Premisecitation

    In Harris and Napper (2005), high-risk self-affirmed participants reported it was easier to imagine themselves with breast cancer, and this effect persisted one month later.

    “The high-risk self-aYrmed participants also reported that they found it easier to imagine themselves with breast cancer-an eVect that persisted one month later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harris and Napper (2005)

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    Premisecitation

    In Harris and Napper (2005), among heavy-drinking young women, self-affirmation increased perceived risk of breast cancer compared with no affirmation, and this effect persisted over one month.

    “Among the participants most at risk for health problems-that is, the women who drank heavily-those who completed the self-aYrmation saw themselves as being at greater risk for breast cancer than those who were not aYrmed (as in Sherman et al., 2000), an eVect that did not diminish over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris and Napper (2005)

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    • cites Sherman et al., 2000 source

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    Interpretationcitation

    Self-affirmation can secure self-worth in a domain unrelated to the stressor and may encourage people to view the stressful event without feeling their self-integrity is in question.

    “Specifically, self-aYrmations can secure self-worth in a domain unrelated to the stressor (Creswell et al., 2005;Keough, 1998), and may, as a result, encourage people to view the stressful event without feeling as though their self integrity is in question.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Creswell et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Keough, 1998

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    Premisecitation

    In Creswell et al. (2005), at 20 minutes and persisting through 45 minutes after the stress task, control participants had elevated cortisol levels, whereas self-affirmation participants did not.

    “Yet, at the 20-minute measurement, and persisting through 45 minutes after the stress task, the participants in the control condition had elevated cortisol levels, whereas the self-aYrmation participants did not (Creswell et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Creswell et al., 2005 source

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    Premisecitation

    The frequency of self-affirmation statements predicted enhanced coping and reductions in distress at follow-up.

    “Additionally, the frequency of self-aYrmation statements predicted enhanced coping and reductions in distress at the follow-up session.”
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    • cites Creswell et al., 2006

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    Premisecitation

    After experiencing a self-threat, people may engage in strategies to reaffirm self-integrity via social judgment, including comparing with an inferior other, gossiping negatively, or harshly judging a political ingroup member.

    “After experiencing a self-threat, people may engage in any number of strategies to reaYrm self-integrity via social judgment.These strategies include comparing the self with a clearly inferior other (Fein, Hoshino-Browne, Davies, & Spencer, 2003), gossiping negatively about a third party (Wert, 2004;Wert & Salovey, 2004), or harshly judging a political ingroup member who fails to demonstrate as”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fein, Hoshino-Browne, Davies, & Spencer, 2003

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    • cites Wert, 2004

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    • cites Wert & Salovey, 2004

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    Premisecitation

    Whether students evaluate a person who studies 19 hours a week as 'studious' depends upon how many hours a week they study themselves; people egocentrically define what evidence constitutes a given trait or ability.

    “Whether students evaluate a person who studies 19 hours a week as ''studious'' depends upon how many hours a week they study themselves (Dunning & Cohen, 1992)-that is, people egocentrically define what evidence constitutes a given trait or ability.”
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    • cites Dunning & Cohen, 1992

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    Interpretationcitation

    Self-affirmation reduces the stressfulness of evaluative situations and the cognitive accessibility of threatening cognitions.

    “It also reduces the stressfulness of evaluative situations (Creswell et al., 2005) and the cognitive accessibility of threatening cognitions (Koole et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Creswell et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Koole et al., 1999 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Self-affirmation inoculates people against threat and makes them more open to ideas that would otherwise be too painful to accept.

    “Self-aYrmation inoculates people against threat, and thus makes them more open to ideas that would otherwise be too painful to accept.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Even affirmations in alternative domains of self-worth are not impervious to disconfirmation, and when disconfirmed, cognitive dissonance can be reinstated.

    “However, even aYrmations in alternative domains of self-worth are not impervious to disconfirmation, and when they are disconfirmed (e.g., being told you are not religious shortly after aYrming religion as a central value), cognitive dissonance can be reinstated (Galinsky, Stone, & Cooper, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Galinsky, Stone, & Cooper, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    In various dissonance-provoking situations, self-affirmations have been found to reduce psychological discomfort and defensive biases.

    “In various dissonance-provoking situations, self-aYrmations have been found to reduce psychological discomfort and defensive biases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Self-affirmation reduced threat and thereby encouraged people to expose themselves to an informative but potentially threatening learning opportunity.

    “Once again, self-aYrmation reduced threat and thereby encouraged people to expose themselves to an informative but potentially threatening learning opportunity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    One's self-concept and one's social identity are overlapping cognitive constructs, so people tend to use the self-concept as an anchor to form judgments of the group.

    “Because one's self-concept and one's social identity are overlapping cognitive constructs (Smith & Henry, 1996;Smith, Coats, & Walling, 1999), people will tend to use the self-concept as an anchor or evaluative base to form judgments of the group (Cadinu & Rothbart, 1996;Gramzow & Gaertner, 2005;Otten, 2002).”
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    • cites Smith & Henry, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Smith, Coats, & Walling, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Cadinu & Rothbart, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When an athlete's team loses, he or she will resist explanations that implicate the team because doing otherwise would threaten the image of a valued group.

    “When an athlete's team loses, he or she will resist explanations that implicate the team because doing otherwise would threaten the image of a valued group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Sherman and Kim (2005, Study 2), self-affirmation reduced both self- and group-serving attributional biases.

    “We replicated the basic findings that self-aYrmation reduced both the self-and the group-serving attributional biases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sherman & Kim, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social groups are a central part of how people see themselves, and people are motivated to defend their social identities.

    “However, social groups are a central part of how people see themselves, and people are motivated to defend their social identities (Abrams & Hogg, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Abrams & Hogg, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When self-integrity is secured, people seem less concerned with self-evaluative implications of social experiences and are more likely to engage their social world in a non-defensive, open manner.

    “When self-integrity is secured, people seem less concerned with the self-evaluative implications of social experiences and are more likely to engage their social world in a non-defensive, open manner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Sherman and Kim (2005), in the no-affirmation condition, winners made much stronger internal team attributions than losers, but this difference was eliminated in the self-affirmation condition.

    “Whereas in the no aYrmation condition, winners made much stronger internal team attributions than did losers, this diVerence was eliminated in the self-aYrmation condition (Sherman & Kim, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sherman & Kim, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Patriotism and pride in one's national citizenship represent manifestations of another collective identity that people try to defend, particularly when their country is under threat.

    “Patriotism and pride in one's national citizenship represent manifestations of another collective identity that people try to defend-particularly when their country is under threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When one's country is vilified in an editorial, a patriot will attack the credibility of the source to protect the perceived integrity of his or her national identity.

    “When one's country is vilified in an editorial, a patriot will attack the credibility of the source to protect the perceived integrity of his or her national identity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    People with defensive high self-esteem may have fewer self-resources that can be drawn upon when experiencing threat.

    “It seems that people with defensive high self-esteem may have fewer self-resources that can be drawn upon when experiencing threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In individualist cultures, the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures, the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.

    “In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Heine et al., 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kim & Markus, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Markus & Kitayama, 1991 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Across a variety of potentially threatening situations, self-affirmations reduced perceived threat and the likelihood of engaging in defensive adaptations to threat.

    “Across a variety of potentially threatening situations, self-aYrmations reduced perceived threat and the likelihood of engaging in defensive adaptations to threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-affirmations related to the threatening act increase the salience of personal standards of conduct, draw attention to the discrepancy between those standards and one's previous behavior, and lead high self-esteem people to experience more dissonance and rationalize more than low self-esteem people.

    “Self-aYrmations related to the threatening act (e.g., writing about how compassionate one is after having behaved uncompassionately) increase the salience of personal standards of conduct, draw attention to the discrepancy between those standards and one's previous behavior and thus lead high self-esteem people to experience more dissonance (and rationalize more) than low self-esteem people.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stone & Cooper, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Self-affirmation cultivates trust and reduces threat across racial lines.

    “it cultivates trust and reduces threat across racial lines as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Under the condition of accessible self-resources, those with greater affirmational resources were more resilient to threats to their self-image and less likely to engage in defensive rationalization.

    “Under this condition, those with greater aYrmational resources were more resilient to threats to their self-image and less likely to engage in defensive rationalization of their behavior”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Steele et al., 1993 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fein and Spencer (1997) found that self-affirmation (positive personality feedback) reduced stereotyping and raised state self-esteem.

    “Fein and Spencer (1997) gave people positive personality feedback and found that this self-aYrmation not only reduced stereotyping but also raised state self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fein and Spencer (1997)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schmeichel and Martens (2005) found no effects of affirmation on self-esteem, while finding effects on worldview defense and death-thought accessibility.

    “While they did find eVects on the primary outcomes featured in that study (worldview defense and death-thought accessibility), they found no eVects on self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmeichel and Martens (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Koole et al. (1999), self-affirmation led to increases in implicit positive mood, which in turn was associated with decreases in ruminative thought.

    “self-aYrmation led to increases in implicit positive mood, which in turn was associated with decreases in ruminative thought.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Koole et al., 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Domain-relevant affirmations consistently increase resistance to change, presumably by highlighting a person's commitment to the issue and the identity at stake.

    “In contrast to domain-irrelevant aYrmations, such domain-relevant aYrmations consistently increase resistance to change, presumably by highlighting a person's commitment to the issue and the identity at stake.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Affirmations lift people's self-evaluative concerns in the situation at hand and allow other motivations, such as a desire to be even-handed, rational, or healthful, to predominate.

    “AYrmations, we suggest, lift people's self-evaluative concerns in the situation at hand and allow other motivations, such as a desire to be even-handed, rational, or healthful, to predominate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The field study by Cohen et al. (2006) featured a randomized, double-blind experimental design.

    “a field study (Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Masters, 2006) was conducted that featured a randomized, double-blind experimental design.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Masters, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that a number of affective, cognitive, and motivational processes act in concert to produce self-affirmation effects.

    “It seems likely that there are a number of aVective, cognitive, and motivational processes acting in concert to produce self-aYrmation eVects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Same-domain affirmations increase people's sense of self-confidence, certainty, and impunity, producing effects opposite to those observed when the affirmation targets a domain unrelated to the threat.

    “same-domain aYrmations increase people's sense of selfconfidence, certainty, and impunity.They thus produce eVects opposite to those observed when the aYrmation targets a domain unrelated to the threat (Blanton et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Blanton et al., 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Tesser (2000) argued that self-esteem maintenance processes are essentially interchangeable with self-affirmation processes.

    “Tesser (2000) has argued that self-esteem maintenance processes are essentially interchangeable with self-aYrmation processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tesser, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Tesser (2000) argues that these studies support a basic interchangeability of self-evaluative processes.

    “Tesser (2000) argues that these studies support a basic interchangeability of self-evaluative processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tesser, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Self-affirmations can have effects similar to self-esteem effects, but without influencing self-esteem.

    “It appears that self-aYrmations can have eVects similar to self-esteem eVects, but without influencing self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    People who have multiple roles tend to have reduced stress and depression, at least as long as number of roles remains below manageable threshold.

    “people who have multiple roles, such as family and career, tend to have reduced stress and depression-at least as long as the number of roles remains below a manageable threshold”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gore & Mangione, 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Terror management theory proposes that maintenance of self-integrity serves to stave off existential terror.

    “the maintenance of self-integrity serves to stave oV the existential terror that accompanies the knowledge of one's own mortality (Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Ego-protective strategies people have evolved to maintain self-integrity may help to promote their social fitness.

    “the egoprotective strategies people have evolved to maintain self-integrity may thus help to promote their social fitness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leary & Baumeister, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Leading individuals to focus on their own mortality increases both endorsement of cultural worldviews and engagement in self-esteem protective behaviors.

    “leading individuals to focus on their own mortality should increase both their endorsement of cultural worldviews and engagement in self-esteem protective behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    People's positive illusions and self-deceptions may be in the service of social deception.

    “people's positive illusions and self-deceptions may be in the service of social deception.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trivers (2000) source

      Not checked in the free run.

77 of 77

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For self-affirmation effects to have practical significance, they must persist beyond the experimental setting.

    “For the eVects to have practical significance, they must persist beyond the experimental setting.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Stress from stereotype threat can undermine performance.

    “This stress can in turn undermine performance.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The report used in Cohen et al. (2005) was credible and counter-attitudinal for American patriots.

    “The arguments were credible (drawn from the writings of several prominent analysts) and buttressed with factual evidence and historical analysis.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People experience many potential threats to their self-integrity.

    “Because people experience many potential threats to their self-integrity”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Final prediction reverses the stated effect of awareness

    Minor

    The paper says awareness of the link between self-affirmation and its effects diminishes the intervention's effectiveness. Its proposed future test instead asks whether affirmations are less effective when people are unaware rather than aware.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. De Dreu, 2003, Motivational bases of information processing and strategy in negotiation and social conflict, Vol. 35, 235
  2. Heine, 2005, Constructing good selves in Japan and North America, Vol. 10, 95
  3. Keough, 1998, When the self is at stake: Integrating the self into stress and physical health research (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1998), Dissertation Abstracts International, 58, 3959
  4. Martin, 1996, Some ruminative thoughts, Vol. 9, 1
  5. Petty, 1986, The elaboration likelihood method of persuasion, Vol. 19, 123
  6. Taylor, S. E., & Sherman, D. K. (in press). Self‐enhancement and self‐affirmation: The effects of positive self‐thoughts on motivation and behavior. Chapter to appear in J. Shah & W. Gardner (Eds.) Handbook of motivation science. New York: Guilford Publications.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L.
ORCID
Venue
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher
Elsevier
Published
2006
Pages
183-242
ISSN
0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5
OpenAlex
W2170739705
Semantic Scholar
827df9b81834b6562a239116965d06837750ab6f
Cited by
1,614
References
228
Citations by year
2026: 63 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 131 · 2021: 124 · 2020: 108 · 2019: 105 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 91 · 2016: 90 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 87 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 62
FWCI
63.77
Type
book chapter
Language
en
Open access
Locations
Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
Keywords
self-affirmation theory, self-defense, self-integrity, self-worth, self-threat, group threat, discrimination, defensiveness, coping, interpersonal relationships

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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