The DOI matches its Crossref record; 38 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Politically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm, Part 1: What Politically Motivated Reasoning Is and How to Measure It
Abstract
Recent research identifiespolitically motivated reasoningas the source of persistent public conflict over policy‐relevant facts. This essay, the first in a two‐part set, presents a basic conceptual model—thePolitically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm—and an experimental setup—thePMRP design—geared to distinguishing the influence of PMRP from a truth‐seeking Bayesian process of information processing and from recurring biases understood to be inimical to the same. It also discusses alternative schemes for operationalizing “motivating” group predispositions and the characteristics of valid study samples for examining this phenomenon.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“People may process information in a manner that is consistent with their partisan identities, prior beliefs, and motivations, a process known as motivated cognition (34–37).”
From Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media (2021) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“This has brought researchers to conclude that negative influence effect is elusive, with limited relevance for politics outside the laboratory (88, 90, 93–95): while we may be less influenced by our political opponents, we are unlikely to be negatively influenced by them.”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
Citations
Cites
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098 · Cited by 4,583
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-4918 · Cited by 2,016
Cultural cognition of scientific consensus.
Kahan, D. M., Jenkins‐Smith, H., & Braman, D. (2011) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2010.511246 · Cited by 1,686
Self-citationThe psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5 · Cited by 1,614
Party Over Policy: The Dominating Impact of Group Influence on Political Beliefs.
Cohen, G. L. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808 · Cited by 1,400
Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial
Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., Richey, S., & Freed, G. L. (2014) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2365 · Cited by 1,300
Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139032490 · Cited by 1,281
Using Mechanical Turk to Study Clinical Populations
Shapiro, D. N., Chandler, J., & Mueller, P. A. (2013) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702612469015 · Cited by 1,139
Conducting Clinical Research Using Crowdsourced Convenience Samples
Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623 · Cited by 1,072
Rationality and the Reflective Mind
Stanovich, K. (2010) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341140.001.0001 · Cited by 1,041
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Frankovic K., 2015, Most republicans do not think humans are causing climate change
- Kahan D. M., The expressive rationality of inaccurate perceptions of fact, Behavioral & Brain Sciences
- 10.1038/nnano.2008.341 · DOI
- Moore P., 2015, Most Republicans back a flat tax
- Newport F., 2015, Majority say more concealed weapons would make U.S. Safer
- Smith T.W., 2014, General social survey, 2014 file [data file and codebook]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media
Rathje, S., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2024292118 · Cited by 560
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B. S., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., Celniker, J. B., & Zinger, J. F. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617746796 · Cited by 535
Moral reframing: A technique for effective and persuasive communication across political divides
Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2019) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12501 · Cited by 302
How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting
Törnberg, P. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2207159119 · Cited by 288
Jerit, J., & Zhao, Y. (2020) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032814 · Cited by 263
Extreme Protest Tactics Reduce Popular Support for Social Movements
Feinberg, M., Willer, R., & Kovacheff, C. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000230 · Cited by 313
The Evolving Field of Risk Communication
Balog‐Way, D. H. P., McComas, K. A., & Besley, J. C. (2020) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13615 · Cited by 263
Cross-national variation in determinants of climate change concern
Lewis, G. B., Palm, R. I., & Feng, B. (2018) · Environmental Politics · doi:10.1080/09644016.2018.1512261 · Cited by 236
The nature and origins of political polarization over science
Rekker, R. (2021) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/0963662521989193 · Cited by 210
The Bias That Divides Us: The Science and Politics of Myside Thinking
Stanovich, K. E. (2021) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/13367.001.0001 · Cited by 152
Smith, E. K., & Mayer, A. (2018) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2332-x · Cited by 159
Motivated reasoning and climate change
Bayes, R., & Druckman, J. N. (2021) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.009 · Cited by 151
Bayesian or biased? Analytic thinking and political belief updating
Tappin, B. M., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104375 · Cited by 127
McKenna, R. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.001.0001 · Cited by 136
Marks, J., Copland, E., Loh, E., Sunstein, C. R., & Sharot, T. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.10.003 · Cited by 132
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.001.0001 · Cited by 122
Modeling the emergence of affective polarization in the social media society
Törnberg, P., Andersson, C., Lindgren, K., & Banisch, S. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258259 · Cited by 118
The Genesis of the Birther Rumor: Partisanship, Racial Attitudes, and Political Knowledge
Jardina, A. E., & Traugott, M. W. (2018) · The Journal of Race Ethnicity and Politics · doi:10.1017/rep.2018.25 · Cited by 109
The Heart Trumps the Head: Desirability Bias in Political Belief Revision
Tappin, B. M., van der Leer, L., & McKay, R. T. (2017) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.1037/xge0000298 · Cited by 69
The Impact of Message Source on the Effectiveness of Communications About Climate Change
Bolsen, T., Palm, R. I., & Kingsland, J. T. (2019) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547019863154 · Cited by 126
A Note on the Perverse Effects of Actively Open-Minded Thinking on Climate-change Polarization
Kahan, D. M., & Corbin, J. C. (2016) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/2053168016676705 · Cited by 110
Self-citationResistance to evidence and the duty to believe
Simion, M. (2023) · Philosophy and Phenomenological Research · doi:10.1111/phpr.12964 · Cited by 98
Quantifying the potential persuasive returns to political microtargeting
Tappin, B. M., Wittenberg, C., Hewitt, L. B., Berinsky, A. J., & Rand, D. G. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2216261120 · Cited by 83
Donovan, B., Weindling, M., Salazar, B., Duncan, A., Stuhlsatz, M. A. M., & Keck, P. (2020) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21670 · Cited by 89
Democratic Speech in Divided Times
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.001.0001 · Cited by 78
Pragmatic and (or) Constitutive? On the Foundations of Contemporary Risk Communication Research
Rickard, L. N. (2019) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13415 · Cited by 83
Do Partisan Types Stop at the Water’s Edge?
Kertzer, J. D., Brooks, D. J., & Brooks, S. G. (2020) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/711408 · Cited by 74
Esaiasson, P., Arnesen, S., & Werner, H. (2022) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140221109433 · Cited by 72
Biased belief in the Bayesian brain: A deeper look at the evidence
Tappin, B. M., & Gadsby, S. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.006 · Cited by 73
Epistemic Bubbles and Authoritarian Politics
Anderson, E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192893338.003.0002 · Cited by 66
What’s new in the new ideology critique?
Sankaran, K. (2019) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-019-01261-9 · Cited by 69
Christensen, J., & Moynihan, D. P. (2018) · Behavioural Public Policy · doi:10.1017/bpp.2020.50 · Cited by 68
The Interaction between Political Typology and Filter Bubbles in News Recommendation Algorithms
Liu, P., Shivaram, K., Culotta, A., Shapiro, M. A., & Bilgic, M. (2021) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3442381.3450113 · Cited by 75
Røgeberg, O. J., Bergsvik, D., Phillips, L. D., van Amsterdam, J., Eastwood, N., Henderson, G., Lynskey, M. T., Measham, F. C., Ponton, R., Rolles, S., et al. (2018) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.01.019 · Cited by 62
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0008 · Cited by 59
Gerken, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.001.0001 · Cited by 60
All the Best Polls Agree with Me: Bias in Evaluations of Political Polling
Madson, G., & Hillygus, D. S. (2019) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-019-09532-1 · Cited by 60
Crawley, S., Coffé, H., & Chapman, R. (2019) · The British Journal of Politics and International Relations · doi:10.1177/1369148119888827 · Cited by 59
Kreiss, D. (2017) · American Journal of Cultural Sociology · doi:10.1057/s41290-017-0039-5 · Cited by 52
Zummo, L., Donovan, B., & Busch, K. C. (2021) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21648 · Cited by 52
Bayesian versus politically motivated reasoning in human perception of climate anomalies
RIPBERGER, J. T., Jenkins‐Smith, H. C., Silva, C., Carlson, D. E., Gupta, K., Carlson, N., & Dunlap, R. E. (2017) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa8cfc · Cited by 52
Disagreement and the division of epistemic labor
Hallsson, B. G., & Kappel, K. (2018) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-018-1788-6 · Cited by 53
Partisan Bias and Its Discontents
Ditto, P. H., Clark, C. J., Liu, B. S., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., Celniker, J. B., & Zinger, J. F. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691618817753 · Cited by 51
Ársælsson, K. M., & Gastil, J. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12591 · Cited by 56
Delusions and theories of belief
Connors, M. H., & Halligan, P. W. (2020) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2020.102935 · Cited by 49
Mistakes, Overconfidence, and the Effect of Sharing on Detecting Lies
Serra-García, M., & Uri Gneezy, B. (2021) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20191295 · Cited by 54
The Fake News Effect: Experimentally Identifying Motivated Reasoning Using Trust in News
Thaler, M. (2024) · American Economic Journal Microeconomics · doi:10.1257/mic.20220146 · Cited by 50
Policy over- and under-design: an information quality perspective
Maor, M. (2020) · Policy Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11077-020-09388-x · Cited by 47
The levers of political persuasion with conversational artificial intelligence
Hackenburg, K., Tappin, B. M., Hewitt, L., Saunders, E., Black, S., Lin, H., Fist, C., Margetts, H. Z., Rand, D. G., & Summerfield, C. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aea3884 · Cited by 128
Psychological Underpinnings of Misinformation Countermeasures
Ziemer, C., & Rothmund, T. (2024) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000407 · Cited by 41
Skepticism Motivated: On the Skeptical Import of Motivated Reasoning
Carter, J. A., & McKenna, R. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1017/can.2020.16 · Cited by 42
Believing and Sharing Information by Fake Sources: An Experiment
Bauer, P. C., & von Hohenberg, B. C. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1840462 · Cited by 52
Motivated reasoning and the ethics of belief
Ellis, J. (2022) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.12828 · Cited by 41
Audiences for Science Communication in the United States
Besley, J. C. (2018) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2018.1457067 · Cited by 39
Geiger, N., Pasek, M. H., Gruszczynski, M., Ratcliff, N. J., & Weaver, K. S. (2020) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101524 · Cited by 42
The ``Fake News'' Effect: Experimentally Identifying Motivated Reasoning Using Trust in News
Thaler, M. (2020) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.4339 · Cited by 50
Knowledge, Fear, and Conscience: Reasons to Stop Flying Because of Climate Change
Wormbs, N., & Söderberg, M. W. (2021) · Urban Planning · doi:10.17645/up.v6i2.3974 · Cited by 38
Do as the Romans do: On the authoritarian roots of pseudoscience
Fasce, A., Adrián‐Ventura, J., & Avendaño, D. (2020) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/0963662520935078 · Cited by 42
Gender differences in motivated reasoning
Thaler, M. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.09.016 · Cited by 39
Revised and short versions of the pseudoscientific belief scale
Fasce, A., Avendaño, D., & Adrián‐Ventura, J. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3811 · Cited by 37
Public Perceptions of the Supreme Court: How Policy Disagreement Affects Legitimacy
Strother, L., & Gadarian, S. K. (2022) · The Forum · doi:10.1515/for-2022-2043 · Cited by 35
Opinion Dynamics Model Based on Cognitive Biases of Complex Agents
Sobkowicz, P. (2018) · Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation · doi:10.18564/jasss.3867 · Cited by 44
Young trendsetters: How young voters fuel electoral volatility
Rekker, R. (2021) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102425 · Cited by 45
From Basic to Humane Genomics Literacy
Donovan, B., Weindling, M., & Lee, D. M. (2020) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-020-00171-1 · Cited by 34
Rekker, R., & Harteveld, E. (2024) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-022-00265-4 · Cited by 32
Moralization and extremism robustly amplify myside sharing
Marie, A., Altay, S., & Strickland, B. (2023) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad078 · Cited by 32
Changing Americans’ Attitudes about Immigration: Using Moral Framing to Bolster Factual Arguments
Voelkel, J. G., Malik, M., Redekopp, C., & Willer, R. (2022) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221083877 · Cited by 37
Feezell, J. T., Glazier, R. A., & Boydstun, A. E. (2019) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2019.1584751 · Cited by 31
Kreiss, D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95945-0_13 · Cited by 31
Wheeler, N., Allidina, S., Long, E. U., Schneider, S. P., Haas, I. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2020) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.002 · Cited by 36
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., & Zinger, J. F. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2952510 · Cited by 31
How Research Affects Policy: Experimental Evidence from 2,150 Brazilian Municipalities
Hjort, J., Moreira, D., Rao, G., & Santini, J. F. (2019) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w25941 · Cited by 31
Ganapini, M. B. (2019) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-019-01369-y · Cited by 28
Principled or Partisan? The Effect of Cancel Culture Framings on Support for Free Speech
Fahey, J. J., Roberts, D. C., & Utych, S. (2022) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x221087601 · Cited by 27
How to Distinguish Motivated Reasoning from Bayesian Updating
Little, A. T. (2025) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-024-09999-7 · Cited by 33
When does science persuade (or not persuade) in high‐conflict policy contexts?
Heikkila, T., Weible, C. M., & Gerlak, A. K. (2020) · Public Administration · doi:10.1111/padm.12655 · Cited by 26
Partisan Bias in Political Judgment
Ditto, P. H., Celniker, J. B., Siddiqi, S. S., Güngör, M., & Relihan, D. P. (2025) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-030424-122723 · Cited by 25
Whither Now, Opinion Modelers?
Sobkowicz, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Physics · doi:10.3389/fphy.2020.587009 · Cited by 26
Tappin, B. M., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k3jhy · Cited by 28
The Maintenance of Institutional Legitimacy in Supreme Court Justices’ Public Rhetoric
Glennon, C., & Strother, L. (2019) · Journal of Law and Courts · doi:10.1086/703065 · Cited by 25
The epistemic significance of political disagreement
Hallsson, B. G. (2018) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-018-1121-8 · Cited by 25
Do We Live in a ‘Post-Truth’ Era?
Ahlstrom‐Vij, K. (2021) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00323217211026427 · Cited by 26
Bounded reflectivism and epistemic identity
Byrd, N. (2021) · Metaphilosophy · doi:10.1111/meta.12534 · Cited by 20
Virtues for Real-World Utilitarians
Schubert, S., & Caviola, L. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003301424-11 · Cited by 21
Bolsen, T., & Thornton, J. R. (2021) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102293 · Cited by 24
Measuring fake news acumen using a news media literacy instrument
Nagel, T. W. S. (2022) · Journal of Media Literacy Education · doi:10.23860/jmle-2022-14-1-3 · Cited by 21
Alignment of values and political orientations amplifies climate change attitudes and behaviors
Smith, E. K., & Hempel, L. M. (2022) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-022-03348-5 · Cited by 37
Oswald, L., & Bright, J. (2022) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2022.2071314 · Cited by 32
Group Norms, Social Pressure, and Ethnic Voting
Rosenzweig, S. C. (2024) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00323217241299365 · Cited by 23
The Fake News Effect: Experimentally Identifying Motivated Reasoning Using Trust in NewsPreprint
Thaler, M. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3717381 · Cited by 21
Perach, R., Joyner, L., Husbands, D., & Buchanan, T. (2023) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051231192032 · Cited by 19
Mehmet, M., Heffernan, T. W., Algie, J., & Forouhandeh, B. (2021) · Journal of Social Marketing · doi:10.1108/jsocm-03-2021-0067 · Cited by 14
Kroll, A. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108933025 · Cited by 19
There is an ‘I’ in truth: How salient identities shape dynamic perceptions of truth
Wang, C., Platow, M. J., & Newman, E. J. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2909 · Cited by 20
Lindgren, E., Damstra, A., Strömbäck, J., Tsfati, Y., Vliegenthart, R., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003111474-10 · Cited by 18
Rozenblum, Y., Dalyot, K., & Baram‐Tsabari, A. (2024) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21975 · Cited by 22
Hassauer, C., & Roosen, J. (2020) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104683 · Cited by 18
Agent Based Model of Anti-Vaccination Movements: Simulations and Comparison with Empirical Data
Sobkowicz, P., & Sobkowicz, A. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9080809 · Cited by 24
Yuan, M., & Swedlow, B. (2022) · Review of Policy Research · doi:10.1111/ropr.12515 · Cited by 18
Glinitzer, K., Gummer, T., & Wagner, M. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12734 · Cited by 17
Metadata
- Authors
- Kahan, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kahan, Dan M.
- ORCID
- Kahan, Dan M.
- Venue
- Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-11-29
- Pages
- 1-16
- OpenAlex
- W2564709365
- Cited by
- 341
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 2
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- cognitive biases
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review