The DOI matches its Crossref record; 38 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Politically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm, Part 1: What Politically Motivated Reasoning Is and How to Measure It
Abstract
Recent research identifiespolitically motivated reasoningas the source of persistent public conflict over policy‐relevant facts. This essay, the first in a two‐part set, presents a basic conceptual model—thePolitically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm—and an experimental setup—thePMRP design—geared to distinguishing the influence of PMRP from a truth‐seeking Bayesian process of information processing and from recurring biases understood to be inimical to the same. It also discusses alternative schemes for operationalizing “motivating” group predispositions and the characteristics of valid study samples for examining this phenomenon.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“People may process information in a manner that is consistent with their partisan identities, prior beliefs, and motivations, a process known as motivated cognition (34–37).”
From Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media (2021) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“This has brought researchers to conclude that negative influence effect is elusive, with limited relevance for politics outside the laboratory (88, 90, 93–95): while we may be less influenced by our political opponents, we are unlikely to be negatively influenced by them.”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
Citations
Cites
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098 · Cited by 4,583
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-4918 · Cited by 2,016
Cultural cognition of scientific consensus.
Kahan, D. M., Jenkins‐Smith, H., & Braman, D. (2011) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2010.511246 · Cited by 1,686
Self-citationThe psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5 · Cited by 1,614
Party Over Policy: The Dominating Impact of Group Influence on Political Beliefs.
Cohen, G. L. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808 · Cited by 1,400
Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial
Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., Richey, S., & Freed, G. L. (2014) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2365 · Cited by 1,300
Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139032490 · Cited by 1,281
Using Mechanical Turk to Study Clinical Populations
Shapiro, D. N., Chandler, J., & Mueller, P. A. (2013) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702612469015 · Cited by 1,139
Conducting Clinical Research Using Crowdsourced Convenience Samples
Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623 · Cited by 1,072
Rationality and the Reflective Mind
Stanovich, K. (2010) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341140.001.0001 · Cited by 1,041
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Frankovic K., 2015, Most republicans do not think humans are causing climate change
- Kahan D. M., The expressive rationality of inaccurate perceptions of fact, Behavioral & Brain Sciences
- 10.1038/nnano.2008.341 · DOI
- Moore P., 2015, Most Republicans back a flat tax
- Newport F., 2015, Majority say more concealed weapons would make U.S. Safer
- Smith T.W., 2014, General social survey, 2014 file [data file and codebook]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 341
Why Bother Teaching Public Policy Analysis
Tietje, L. (2018) · Cited by 2
On The Role of Social Identity in the Market for (Mis)information
Hebbar, V., & Langbort, C. (2022) · IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC) · doi:10.1109/cdc51059.2022.9993142 · Cited by 2
Sleat, M. (2023) · Political Theory · doi:10.1177/00905917231204892 · Cited by 3
Persuading climate skeptics with facts: Effects of causal evidence vs. consensus messaging
Kim, J. W., & Liu, R. (2024) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/20531680241237311 · Cited by 3
Critical Thinking in The Post-Truth Era
Wikforss, Å. (2019) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64113-853-620251017 · Cited by 2
Lu, W., & Chen, D. L. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3205116 · Cited by 2
Inference from Biased PollsPreprint
Brownback, A., Burke, N., & Gagnon-Bartsch, T. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4173083 · Cited by 2
Us vs. Them: The Role of National Identity in the Formation of False Memories for Fake NewsPreprint
Delaney, T., Castillo, L., Friehs, M. A., Buttlar, B., & Greene, C. M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/t86n4 · Cited by 2
The roots of polarisation in the individual reward systemPreprint
Lefebvre, G., Deroy, O. D., & Bahrami, B. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4q3eu · Cited by 2
Countering Public Misinformation
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0005 · Cited by 1
Digitale Informationsumgebungen: Echokammern, Filterblasen, Fake News und Algorithmen
Jungherr, A. M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-31480-4_34-1 · Cited by 1
The Myth of the Victim Public. Democracy contra Disinformation
Špecián, P. (2022) · Filozofia · doi:10.31577/filozofia.2022.77.10.4 · Cited by 1
Intervention Bias: People Overpredict Social Problems in Which They Believe Society Can Intervene
Rigoli, F. (2023) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/19398298.136.4.07 · Cited by 1
Domenech, J. A., & Clary, R. M. (2024) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2024.2366695 · Cited by 1
Scientific values and value-based science reporting
Gerken, M. (2025) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-025-02346-4 · Cited by 1
Plohl, N., Mlakar, I., Aquilino, L., Brienza, M., Bisconti, P., & Smrke, U. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101179 · Cited by 2
Matsumoto, N. (2025) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01785-y · Cited by 3
Rejection of Expert Testimony: A Patterned Testimonial Injustice
Klijnman, C. J. F. (2025) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2025.2572096 · Cited by 1
Meio ambiente e mudanças climáticas no Brasil
de Sousa, A. C. N. C. (2025) · Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente · doi:10.5380/dma.v66i.94264 · Cited by 1
The role of information source in climate beliefs, behavioral commitments, and policy preferences
Goldwert, D., & Vlasceanu, M. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102896 · Cited by 1
Hewitt, C., & Booth, H. (2026) · Journal of Radio & Audio Media · doi:10.1080/19376529.2026.2616253 · Cited by 1
The Epistemic Costs of Super-Persuasive AI
Deller, A. (2026) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-026-01106-4 · Cited by 2
Expressive distrust: Rethinking what it means to distrust the news
Jakobsson, P., & Stiernstedt, F. (2026) · Journalism · doi:10.1177/14648849261465924 · Cited by 1
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0004 · Cited by 1
McKenna, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.003.0005 · Cited by 1
The Epistemic Vices of Democracies in the Age of Populism
Bonatti, L. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55322-6_6 · Cited by 1
How Does Empowering Users with Greater System Control Affect News Filter Bubbles?
Liu, P., Shivaram, K., Culotta, A., Shapiro, M., & Bilgic, M. (2024) · International Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v18i1.31364 · Cited by 6
The Invisible Hand of Partisan Irrationality
Licon, J. A. (2025) · Ethics Politics & Society · doi:10.21814/eps.7.2.5208 · Cited by 1
Silver, J. R., & Silver, E. (2025) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2025.2534400 · Cited by 1
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0001 · Cited by 1
Ethics, Education, and Reasoning
Marabini, A. (2022) · Contemporary philosophies and theories in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95714-8_3 · Cited by 1
"Unmotivated Bias" and Partisan Hostility: Empirical EvidencePreprint
Stone, D. (2018) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/hr5ba · Cited by 1
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Political Overconfidence Inhibits the Effectiveness of Inoculations Against MisperceptionsPreprint
Anson, I. G. (2021) · doi:10.33774/apsa-2021-w1b25 · Cited by 1
Moral Matching: Strategic Messaging to Overcome Barriers to Persuasion
Buckley, T. M. (2022) · Chapman University Digital Commons (Chapman University) · doi:10.36837/chapman.000381 · Cited by 2
Bias-Motivated Updating in an Online Labor MarketPreprint
Rackstraw, E. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4278076 · Cited by 1
Moving genetics education beyond Mendel can reduce racial prejudicePreprint
Donovan, B., Weindling, M., Amemiya, J. L., Salazar, B., Lee, D. M., Syed, A. A., Stuhlsatz, M. A. M., & Snowden, J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zt49j · Cited by 1
Petrović, M., Branković, M., Damnjanović, M., Draginić, K., Sullman, M. J. M., & Žeželj, I. L. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/a2xwj · Cited by 1
Reactions to the Message and Messenger
Paletz, S. B. F., Auxier, B. E., & Golonka, E. (2019) · SpringerBriefs in complexity · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16413-3_3
The Role of Affective Involvement and Knowledge in Processing Mixed Evidence for Social Issues.
Bardolph, M. D., & Seana Coulson, A. (2018) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0004
Novices and Expert Disagreement
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0009
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0005
How Do Epistemic Principles Guide?
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0003
Regulative Epistemology in the Seventeenth Century
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0002
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0011
Inference from Biased PollsPreprint
Brownback, A., Burke, N., & Gagnon-Bartsch, T. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3695115
Essays on Political Socialization and Polarization
Ifkovits, D. (2019) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)
Boyd, L., & Wray, B. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3280289
Crawley, S. (2021) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.14312924.v1 · Cited by 1
Resisting Political Minimalism
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0009
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0002
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0006
Benaine, S. L. (2020) · FIU - Digital Commons (Florida International University) · doi:10.25148/etd.fidc008993
(2021) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83982-826-320211025
Beliefs and climate change skepticism in French peoplePreprint
Krause, E., Weiss, K., & Trémolière, B. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hvwmk · Cited by 1
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0006
Motivated moral judgments about freedom of speech are constrained by a need to appear consistentPreprint
Eftedal, N. H., & Thomsen, L. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ytzvq
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0010
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0003
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0010
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0007
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.003.0001
Do Statistical Rules Interfere with Political Beliefs?Preprint
Ghasemi, O., Roberts, A., & Handley, S. J. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/pkdgq
Motivated Mislearning: The Case of Correlation NeglectPreprint
Bolte, L., & Fan, T. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4153191
Democracy and Science Education
Southgate, E. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1444777
Value Projection and the Marketplace of Realities
Barker, D. C., & Marietta, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197578384.003.0009
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.005.0001
Public Scientific Testimony II
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0007
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.002.0008
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0003
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0009
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0006
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0005
Scientific Justification as the Basis of Scientific Testimony
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0004
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.002.0006
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0001
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.002.0003
Testimony and the Scientific Enterprise
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0002
The Significance of Scentific Testimony
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.003.0008
Gerken, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198857273.002.0004
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0006
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0007
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0002
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0004
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0009
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.002.0003
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.002.0006
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0010
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0001
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0008
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0011
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0005
Brennan, J. (2023) · Democracy · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197558812.003.0003
Lyubykh, Z., Barclay, L. J., Fortin, M., Bashshur, M. R., & Khakhar, M. (2022) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2023.100183
Who Seeks Alternative Psychotherapies? Domain-Specific Predictors and Latent Profiles
Fasce, A., & Adrián‐Ventura, J. (2023) · Studia Psychologica · doi:10.31577/sp.2023.01.864
Sheldon, K. M. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00656-0 · Cited by 2
Anderson and Goldman on Identifying Experts
McKenna, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.003.0003
McKenna, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.003.0004
What Is Non-Ideal Epistemology?
McKenna, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192888822.003.0001
Metadata
- Authors
- Kahan, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kahan, Dan M.
- ORCID
- Kahan, Dan M.
- Venue
- Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-11-29
- Pages
- 1-16
- OpenAlex
- W2564709365
- Cited by
- 341
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 2
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- cognitive biases
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review